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Jordan
Jordan (Arabic:
الأردنّ
al-'Urdunn), officially the Hashemite
Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in
Western
Asia spanning the southern part of the
Syrian Desert down to the
Gulf
of Aqaba. Jordan shares borders with
Syria to the
north, Iraq to the
northeast,
Saudi
Arabia to the east and south, the
Gulf
of Aqaba to the southwest, and
Israel and the
West Bank
to the west. It shares control of the
Dead Sea
with Israel. Much of Jordan is covered by
desert,
particularly the
Arabian Desert; however the north-western area, with the
Jordan
River, is regarded as part of the
Fertile Crescent. The capital city of
Amman is in the
north-west.
During its history, Jordan has seen numerous civilisations, including such
ancient eastern ones as the
Canaanite
and later other
Semitic peoples such as the
Edomites, and the
Moabites.
Other civilisations possessing political sovereignty and influence in Jordan
were: Akkadian,
Assyrian,
Judean,
Babylonian, and
Persian empires. Jordan was for a time part of
Pharaonic Egypt, the
Hasmonean
Dynasty of the
Maccabees,
and also spawned the native
Nabatean civilisation which left rich archaeological remains at
Petra. Cultures
from the west also left their mark, such as the
Macedonian,
Roman,
Byzantine, and
Ottoman Turkish empires. Since the seventh century the area has been under
Muslim and
Arab cultures, with the exception of a brief period when the west of the
area formed part of the
Crusader
Kingdom of Jerusalem and a short time under
British rule.
The
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with representative
government. The reigning monarch is the head of state, the chief executive and
the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The king exercises his executive
authority through the prime ministers and the Council of Ministers, or cabinet.
The cabinet, meanwhile, is responsible before the democratically elected House
of Deputies which, along with the House of Notables (Senate), constitutes the
legislative branch of the government. The judicial branch is an independent
branch of the government.
Jordan is a modern
Arab nation with a predominately middle class population that lacks the vast
wealth of some of its neighbors. Jordan's population is 92% Sunni Muslim with a
small Christian minority. Jordanian society is predominantly urbanized and very
ethnically diverse. Jordan is classified as an
emerging market by the CIA factbook. Jordan is a pro-Western regime that has
very close relations with the
West especially
with the
United States, the
United Kingdom and
France. Jordan
is one of only two
Arab nations, the other being
Egypt, that has
relations with
Israel[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11].
It is a founding member of the
Arab
League[12][13]
and the CAEU, a
member of the
OIC[14][15],
the
WTO[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24],
the
AFESD[25],
the
Arab Parliament[26],
the
AIDMO[27],
the AMF[28],
the
IMF[29][30],
the
International Criminal Court[31],
the
UNHRC[32],
the
GAFTA, the
ESCWA[33],
the
ENP[34][35][36]
and the
United Nations[37].
History
Ancient
Jordan
The most prominent early roots of Jordan , as an independent state, can be
traced to the Kingdom of
Petra, which was
founded by the
Nabataeans
(Arabic: الأنباط, Al-Anbāt) an ancient Semitic people from Arabia who developed
the North Arabic Script that evolved into the Modern Arabic script. The region
of present-day Jordan has been conquered successively by the
Israelite Kingdom,
Assyrian
Empire,
Babylonian Empire, Persian Empire, the
Seleucids (4th cent. BC),
Romans
(mid-1st cent. AD), and
Muslim Arabs (7th. cent.). During its glory, the Nabataean Kingdom
controlled regional trade routes by dominating a large area southwest of the
fertile crescent, which included the whole of modern Jordan extending from
Syria in the
North to the northern
Arabian Peninsula in the south. As a result,
Petra enjoyed
independence, prosperity and wealth for hundreds of years until it was absorbed
by the Roman Empire which was still expanding in 100 A.D.
Jordan also witnessed many other smaller ancient kingdoms having sovereignty
for centuries, in addition to the
Nabataeans.
These included the Kingdom of
Edom, the Kingdom
of Ammon, the
Kingdom of Moab,
the Kingdom of Judah,
and the
Hasmonean Kingdom of the
Maccabees,
which are all mentioned in the
Bible and other
ancient Near Eastern documents.[38]
During the Greco-Roman period of influence, a number of semi-independent
city-states also developed in Jordan under the umbrella of the
Decapolis
including:
Gerasa (Jerash),
Philadelphia (Amman),
Raphana (Abila),
Dion (Capitolias),
Gadara (Umm Qays), and
Pella (Irbid).
Later, Jordan became part of the Arabic
Islamic Empire across its different
Caliphates stages including
Rashidun Empire,
Umayyad Empire and
Abbasid Empire. After the decline of the
Abbasid, Jordan was ruled by several conflicting powers including the
Mongols, the
Crusaders, the
Ayyubids and the
Mamluks until
it became part of the
Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Modern
Jordan
With the break-up of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, the
League of Nations and the occupying powers chose to redraw the borders of
the
Middle East. The ensuing decisions, most notably the
Sykes–Picot Agreement gave birth to the
French Mandate of Syria and
British Mandate of Palestine. More than 76% of the
British Mandate of Palestine was east of the
Jordan river and was known as "Transjordan".
The country was called "Transjordan", under British supervision until after
World
War II. In 1946, the British requested that the
United Nations approve an end to British Mandate rule in Transjordan.
Following this approval, the Transjordanian Parliament proclaimed
King Abdullah as the first ruler of the
Hashemite
Kingdom of Transjordan. Abdullah I continued to rule until a Palestinian Arab
assassinated him in 1951 as he was departing from the al-Aqsa Mosque in
Jerusalem.
During the
1948 Arab-Israeli war, Jordan captured the area of
Cisjordan now called the
West Bank,
which it continued to control in accordance with the
1949 Armistice Agreements. Abdullah thereupon took the title King of Jordan,
and he officially changed the country's name to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
in April 1949. The following year he annexed the West Bank, but only two
countries recognized this annexation: Britain and Pakistan.[39][40]
Approximate image showing the land exchanged between Jordan (green)
and
Saudi Arabia (red).
Jordanian parachute flares illuminate Jerusalem during the
Arab-Israeli war in 1948
Jordan and Iraq
united in 1958 to form the
Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan under the Hashemite crowns in
Amman and
Baghdad. A
coup later that year would end the union with the execution of the Hashemite
crown in Baghdad. The
United Arab Republic consisting of
Egypt,
Syria, and
Yemen quickly
moved to antagonize Jordan's young King Hussein with Soviet support.
King Hussein asked for British and American assistance. The
RAF
and the
USAF was sent to patrol Jordanian airspace and British troops were deployed
in Amman. The UAR
backed off but then turned to
Lebanon. The
Americans would later be deployed in
Beirut to
support Lebanon's pro-Western government.
In 1965, there was an exchange of land between
Saudi
Arabia and Jordan. Jordan gave up a large area of inland desert in return
for a small piece of sea-shore near
Aqaba.
Jordan signed a military pact with
Egypt in May
1967, and following an Israeli air attack on Egypt in June 1967, Egypt, Jordan,
Syria and
Iraq continued the
Six Day War against
Israel. During
the war, Israel captured the West Bank and East
Jerusalem.
In 1988, Jordan renounced all claims to the territory now occupied by Israel but
its 1994 treaty with Israel allowed for a continuing Jordanian role in Muslim
and Christian holy places in Jerusalem. The severance of administrative ties
with the West
Bank halted the Jordanian government's paying of
civil servants and
public sector employees' salaries in the West Bank.
The period following the 1967 war saw an upsurge in the activity and numbers
of Arab Palestinian paramilitary elements (fedayeen)
within the state of Jordan. These distinct, armed militias were becoming a
"state within a state", threatening Jordan's rule of law. King Hussein's armed
forces targeted the fedayeen, and open fighting erupted in June 1970. The
battle in which Palestinian fighters from various
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) groups were expelled from Jordan is
commonly known as
Black September.
The heaviest fighting occurred in northern Jordan and Amman. In the ensuing
heavy fighting, a Syrian tank force invaded northern Jordan to back the
fedayeen fighters, but subsequently retreated.
King Hussein urgently asked the United States, Great Britain and Israel to
intervene against Syria. Consequently, Israel performed mock air strikes on the
Syrian column at the Americans' request. Soon after, Syrian President
Nureddin al-Atassi, ordered a hasty retreat from Jordanian soil.[41][42][43]
By September 22, Arab foreign ministers meeting in Cairo arranged a cease-fire
beginning the following day. However, sporadic violence continued until
Jordanian forces, led by
Habis Al-Majali, with the help of Iraqi forces,[44]
won a decisive victory over the fedayeen on July 1971, expelling them,
and ultimately the PLO's
Yasser Arafat, from Jordan.
At the
Rabat summit conference in 1974, Jordan was now in a more secure position to
agree, along with the rest of the
Arab
League, that the PLO was the "sole legitimate representative of the [Arab]
Palestinian people", thereby relinquishing to that organization its role as
representative of the West Bank.
In 1973, allied
Arab
League forces attacked Israel in the
Yom
Kippur War, and fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-fire
line. Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to attack Israeli units on Syrian territory
but did not engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory.
Although Jordan did not directly participate in the
Gulf War of
1990–91, following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, King Hussein was accused of
supporting Saddam Hussein when he attempted to persuade Saddam Hussein to
withdraw from Kuwait. As a result of the alleged support, the United States and
Arab countries cut off monetary aid to Jordan, and 700,000 Jordanians who had
been working in Arab countries were forced to return to Jordan. In addition,
millions of Iraqi refugees fled to Jordan placing a strain on the country's
social services.
In 1991, Jordan agreed, along with Syria, Lebanon, and Arab Palestinian
fedayeen representatives, to participate in direct peace negotiations with
Israel at the
Madrid Conference, sponsored by the U.S. and Russia. It negotiated an end to
hostilities with Israel and signed a declaration to that effect on 25 July 1994
(see
Washington Declaration). As a result, an
Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty was concluded on 26 October 1994. King
Hussein was later honored when his picture appeared on an Israeli postage stamp
in recognition of the good relations he established with his neighbor. Since the
signing of the peace treaty with Israel, the United States not only contributes
hundreds of millions of dollars in an annual foreign aid stipend to Jordan, but
also has allowed it to establish a free trade zone in which to manufacture goods
that will enter the US without paying the usual import taxes as long as a
percentage of the material used in them is purchased in Israel.
King Hussein died in 1999. His son,
King Abdullah II succeeded him.
Following the outbreak of fighting between Israel and Palestinians in the
Second Intifada in September 2000, the Jordanian government offered its offices
to both parties. Jordan has since sought to remain at peace with all of its
neighbors. Particularly good relations have been maintained between the
Jordanian royal family and Israel, with the Jordanian government frequently
dispersing rallies and jailing demonstrators protesting against Israeli actions.
The government also censors anti-Israeli views from the Jordanian news media.
The last major strain in Jordan's relations with Israel occurred in
September, 1997, when two Israeli agents entered Jordan using Canadian passports
and poisoned
Khaled Meshal, a senior leader of the Palestinian group Hamas. Under threat
of cutting off diplomatic relations, King Hussein forced Israel to provide an
antidote to the poison and to release dozens of Jordanians and Palestinians from
its prisons, including the spiritual leader of Hamas,
Sheikh Ahmed Yassin. Sheikh Yassin was later assassinated by Israel in a
targeted bombing in early 2004 in the West Bank.
On 9 November 2005 Jordan experienced
three simultaneous terrorist bombings at hotels in Amman. At least 57 people
died and 115 were wounded. "Al-Qaeda
in Iraq", a group
led by terrorist
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi,
a native Jordanian, claimed responsibility.
Recently, Jordan has revoked the citizenship of thousands of Palestinians in
an attempt to thwart any attempt by
Israel of
permanetly re-settling West Bank Palestinians in Jordan. West Bank Palestinians
with family in Jordan or with previous Jordanian citizenship would be issued
yellow cards which guaranteed them all the rights of Jordanian citizenship.
Palestinians working for the Palestinian Authority or the PLO were among those
who have had their Jordanian passports taken from them, in addition to anyone
who did not serve in the Jordanian army. Palestinians living in Jordan with
family in the
West Bank would also be issued yellow cards. All other Palestinians wishing
such Jordanian papers would be issued a green card which would facilitate travel
into Jordan and give them temporary Jordanian passports in order to make travel
easier. In addition, no Palestinians from the Gaza Strip are given any such
privileges because Jordanian authority never extended into the
Gaza Strip.[45]
Geography
Mount Nebo is an elevated ridge that is approximately 817 meters
(2680 feet) above sea level in Western Jordan.
Jordan is a
Southwest Asian country, bordered by
Syria to the
north, Iraq to the
northeast,
Saudi
Arabia to the east and south and
Israel to the
west. All these border lines add up to 1,619 km (1,006 mi). The
Gulf
of Aqaba and the
Dead Sea
also touch the country, and thus Jordan has a coastline of 26 km (16 mi).
Jordan consists of arid
forest plateau
in the east irrigated by oasis and seasonal water streams, with highland area in
the west of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry. The
Great Rift Valley of the
Jordan
River separates Jordan, the west bank and Israel. The highest point in the
country is
Jabal Umm al Dami, it is 1,854 m (6,083 ft) above sea level, its top is also
covered with snow, while the lowest is the
Dead Sea
-420 m (−1,378 ft). Jordan is part of a region considered to be "the
cradle
of civilization", the
Levant region
of the
Fertile Crescent.
Major cities include the capital
Amman in the
northwest, Irbid
and
Az Zarqa, both in the north.
Madaba,
Karak and
Aqaba in the
south.
The climate in Jordan is semidry in summer with average temperature in the
mid-30°C (mid-90°F) and relatively cold in winter averaging around −1.3 °C
(30 °F). The western part of the country receives greater precipitation during
the winter season from November to March and snowfall in Amman (756 m (2,480 ft)
~ 1,280 m (4,199 ft) above sea-level) and Western Heights of 500 m (1,640 ft).
Excluding the rift valley the rest of the country is entirely above 300 m (984 ft)(SL).[46]
Climate
The major characteristic of the climate is the contrast between a very rainy
season from November to March and semi dry weather for the rest of the year.
With hot, dry, uniform summers and cool, freezing variable winters during which
practically all of the
precipitation occurs, the country has a
Mediterranean-style climate. In general, the farther inland from the
Mediterranean Sea a given part of the country lies, the greater are the
seasonal contrasts in temperature and the less rainfall.
Atmospheric pressures during the summer months are relatively uniform,
whereas the winter months bring a succession of marked low pressure areas and
accompanying
cold fronts.
These cyclonic disturbances generally move eastward from over the Mediterranean
Sea several times a month and result in sporadic precipitation.
Most of the East Bank receives less than 620 millimeters of rain a year and
may be classified as a semi dry region. Where the ground rises to form the
highlands east of the Jordan Valley, precipitation increases to around 300
millimeters in the south and 500 or more millimeters in the north. The
Jordan Valley, lying in the lee of high ground on the West Bank, forms a
narrow climatic zone that annually receives up to 900 millimeters of rain in the
northern reaches; rain dwindles to less than 120 millimeters at the head of the
Dead Sea.
The country's long summer reaches a peak during August. January is usually
the coldest month. The fairly wide ranges of temperature during a
twenty-four-hour period are greatest during the summer months and have a
tendency to increase with higher elevation and distance from the Mediterranean
seacoast. Daytime temperatures during the summer months frequently exceed 29 °C
and average about 32 °C. In contrast, the winter months—September to March—bring
moderately cool and sometimes very cold weather, averaging about 3.2 °C. Except
in the rift depression, frost is fairly common during the winter, it may take
the form of snow at the higher elevations of the north western highlands.
Usually it snows a
couple of times in the winter in northern Jordan.
For a month or so before and after the summer dry season, hot, dry air from
the desert, drawn by low pressure, produces strong winds from the south or
southeast that sometimes reach
gale force. Known
in the Middle East by various names, including the khamsin, this dry,
sirocco-style
wind is usually accompanied by great dust clouds. Its onset is heralded by a
hazy sky, a falling
barometer,
and a drop in relative humidity to about 10 percent. Within a few hours there
may be a 10 °C to 15 °C rise in temperature. These windstorms ordinarily last a
day or so, cause much discomfort, and destroy
crops by
desiccating them.
The
shamal, another wind of some significance, comes from the north or
northwest, generally at intervals between June and September. Remarkably steady
during daytime hours but becoming a breeze at night, the shammal may blow for as
long as nine days out of ten and then repeat the process. It originates as a dry
continental mass of polar air that is warmed as it passes over the
Eurasian
landmass. The dryness allows intense heating of the Earth's surface by the sun,
resulting in high daytime temperatures that moderate after sunset.
Demographics
Graph showing the population of Jordan from 1960 to 2005.
The Jordan National Census for the year 2004, which was released on October 1
of the same year, gave the following results:
1. As of October 1 2004, Jordan had a population of 5,100,981. The census
estimated that there are another 190,000 who were not counted (for being out of
the country at the time the census was taken, or did not turn in their forms).
2. The census showed that the national growth rate was 2.5% (at maximum)
compared to 3.3% of the 1994 census.
3. The census of 2004 also shows that males made up 51.5% of Jordan's
population (2,628,717). Females: 2,472,264 (48.5%).
4. Jordanian citizens made up 93% of the population (4,750,463), while non
Jordanians made up 7% (349,933). However, it is estimated that most of those who
did not turn in their forms were immigrants from neighboring countries, or non
Arabic-speaking foreigners.
5. There were 946,000 families in Jordan in 2004, with an average of 5.3
persons/family (compared to 6 persons/family for the census of 1994).[49]
The next census is scheduled to take place in 2014.
During the years 2004–2007, Jordan saw a rapid increase in its population due
to the heavy migration of
Iraqi refugees, an independent census carried in 2007, estimated that there
are 700,000 Iraqis
residing in Jordan. Most estimates put the population of Jordan slightly over
6,000,000 as of the year 2007.
95–98% of Jordan's population are Arabs (60–80% of the population is Syro-Palestinian),
the remaining non-Arabs of the population are mainly
Circassians,
Chechens,
Armenians
(13th
largest Armenian diaspora in the world),
Kurds and
Gypsies, but have integrated into the Jordanian and Arab cultures in the
country.[50][51]
The number of
Lebanese permanently settling in Jordan since the
2006 Lebanon War has not been established, and is estimated to be very
little. According to Labour Ministry figures, the number of
guest workers in the country now stands just over 300,000, most are
Egyptians
who makeup 227,000 of the foreign labor, and the remaining 36,150 workers are
mostly from
Bangladesh, China,
Sri Lanka
and India. Since the
Iraq War
many Christians (Assyrians
and
Chaldeans) from
Iraq have settled permanently or temporarily in Jordan.
About 92% of Jordanians are Muslims. The majority are Sunni.
Jordanian Christians permanently residing in Jordan form approximately 6% of
the population and are allocated respective seats in parliament (The Department
of Statistics released no information about the religion distribution from the
census of 2004). Most Jordanian Christians belong to the Greek Orthodox faith
(locally called "Ruum Urthudux" in Arabic). The remainder include Roman
Catholics (locally called "Lateen"), the Eastern Catholic
Melkites (locally called "Ruum Katoleek") and distinct from other "Western
Catholics", as well as various Protestant denominations including Baptists. Most
Jordanian Christians are indigenous Arabs, hold services in the Arabic language,
and share the culture of Jordan and the broader East Mediterranean
Levantine
Arab Identity. Expatriate Christians in Jordan include many nationalities,
as evinced, for example, by some Catholic masses being celebrated in English,
French, Italian, Spanish, Tagalog and Sinhala, and Iraqi dialects of Arabic.
Other Jordanians belonging to religious minorities include adherents to the
Druze and
Bahá'í
Faith. The Druze
are mainly located in the Eastern
Oasis Town of
Azraq and the city of
Zarka, while the Village of Adassiyeh bordering the
Jordan Valley is home to Jordan's
Bahá'í
community.
The official language is
Arabic, but English is used widely in commerce and government and among
educated people. Arabic and English are obligatory learning at public and
private schools. French is taught at some public and private schools but is not
obligatory. However, a vibrant
Francophone community has emerged in modern Jordan.[citation
needed]
Radio Jordan offers radio services in Arabic, English and French.
A portion of the people are registered as
Palestinian refugees and displaced persons reside in Jordan, most as
citizens. Since 2003 many Iraqis fleeing the
Iraq War
have settled in Jordan; latest estimates indicate between 700,000 and 1.7
million
Iraqis living in Jordan;[52]
mainly in Amman, the capital.[53]
Politics
Queen Rania in the Yellow Oval Room in the White House
Residence.
Jordan's most executive power is the King although it is a
constitutional monarchy with a representative government. The King
traditionally has held substantial power, however the democratically-elected
Parliament holds significant influence and power in national governance.
Constitution
Jordan is a
constitutional monarchy based on the
constitution promulgated on 8 January 1952.
Executive authority is vested in the
king and his council of ministers. The king signs and executes all laws. His
veto power may be
overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the
National Assembly. He appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree,
approves
amendments to the constitution, declares war, and commands the
armed forces.
Cabinet decisions, court judgments, and the national currency are issued in
his name. The council of ministers, led by a
prime minister, is appointed by the king, who may dismiss other cabinet
members at the prime minister's request. The cabinet is responsible to the
Chamber of Deputies on matters of general policy and can be forced to resign
by a 50% or more of vote of "no confidence" by that body.
The constitution provides for three categories of courts:
civil, religious, and special. Administratively, Jordan is divided into
twelve
governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the king. They are the
sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in
their respective areas.
Legal
system and legislation
Jordan's legal system is based on
Islamic law and
French codes. Judicial review of legislative acts occurs in a special High
Tribunal. It has not accepted compulsory
International Court of Justice jurisdiction.
Jordan has multi-party politics. There are over 30 political parties in the
Jordan from a wide range of positions ranging from extreme left (Jordanian
Communist Party) to extreme right (Islamic
Action Front).
Article 97 of Jordan’s constitution guarantees the independence of the
judicial branch, clearly stating that judges are 'subject to no authority but
that of the law.' While the king must approve the appointment and dismissal of
judges, in practice these are supervised by the Higher Judicial Council.
The Jordanian legal system draws upon civil traditions as well as Islamic law
and custom. Article 99 of the Constitution divides the courts into three
categories: civil, religious and special. The civil courts deal with civil and
criminal matters in accordance with the law, and they have jurisdiction over all
persons in all matters, civil and criminal, including cases brought against the
government. The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First
Instance, Courts of Appeal, High Administrative Courts and the Supreme Court.
The religious courts include shari’a (Islamic law) courts and the tribunals
of other religious communities, namely those of the Christian minority.
Religious courts have primary and appellate courts and deal only with matters
involving personal law such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and child custody.
Shari’a courts also have jurisdiction over matters pertaining to the Islamic
waqfs. In cases involving parties of different religions, regular courts have
jurisdiction.[54]
Specialized courts involve various bodies. One such body is the Supreme
Council which will interpret the Constitution if requested by either the
National Assembly or the prime minister, according to Dew et al.: "...such
courts are usually created in areas that the legislator deems should be governed
by specialized courts with more experience and knowledge in specific matters
than other regular courts."[55]
Other examples of special courts include the Court of Income Tax and the Highest
Court of Felonies.
The strictly military courts of the martial law period have been abolished
and replaced with a State Security Court, which is composed of both military and
civilian judges. The court tries both military and civilians and its
jurisdiction includes offenses against the external and internal security of the
state as well as drug-related and other offenses. The findings of this court are
subject to appeal before the High Court.
Both Article 102 of the Constitution and the Code of Criminal Procedure
mandate the right of an accused person to a lawyer of his or her own choice
during the investigation and trial period. Article 22 of the Code of Criminal
Procedure also provides that a lawyer has the right to attend the interrogation
unless the investigation is confidential or urgent. Article 28 of the Code of
Criminal Procedure declares that detainees should be brought before a court
within 48 hours of arrest, even in special security cases, giving them an
opportunity to have full access to legal counsel.[54]
Prior to 2002 Jordan’s legal system only allowed men to file for divorce,
however, during this year the first Jordanian woman successfully filed for
divorce;[56]
this was made possible from a proposal by a royal human rights commission which
had been established by King Abdullah who had vowed to improve the status of
women in Jordan.
Despite being traditionally dominated by men the number of women involved as
lawyers in the Jordan legal system has been increasing. As of mid-2006 Jordan
had 1,284 female lawyers, out of a total number of 6,915, and 35 female judges
from a total of 630. In Jordan, between 15 and 20 women are murdered annually in
the name of "honour" and at least eight such killings have been reported in
2008, according to Jordanian authorities. In 2007 17 such murders were recorded.
Kings
of Jordan and political events
King Abdullah I ruled Jordan after independence from Britain. After the
assassination of King Abdullah I in 1951, his son
King Talal ruled briefly. King Talal's major accomplishment was the
Jordanian constitution. King Talal was removed from the throne in 1952 due to
mental illness. At that time his son,
Hussein, was too young to rule, and hence a committee ruled over Jordan.
After Hussein reached 18, he ruled Jordan as king from 1953 to 1999,
surviving a number of challenges to his rule, drawing on the loyalty of his
military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability for both the
Bedouin-related and
Palestinian communities in Jordan. King Hussein ended
martial
law in 1991 and
legalized
political parties in 1992. In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and fair
parliamentary elections. Controversial changes in the election law led
Islamist parties
to boycott the 1997 elections.
King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death
in February 1999. Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's
peace treaty with
Israel and its
relations with the United States. Abdullah, during the first year in power,
refocused the government's agenda on economic reform.
Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population,
and more open political environment led to the emergence of a variety of
political parties. Moving toward greater independence, Jordan's parliament has
investigated corruption charges against several regime figures and has become
the major forum in which differing political views, including those of political
Islamists, are expressed. While the King remains the ultimate authority in
Jordan, the parliament plays an important role.
Religion
The Abu Darweesh Mosque was built in 1961 by the
Circassian community which came to settle in Amman
A Greek Orthodox Church in Amman
Jordan's official religion is
Islam and Islamic
studies are offered to students but are not mandatory to non-Muslim students.
Jordan is an advocate for religious freedom in the region and the world.
Religious officials have no part in the government and are not allowed to
interfere in the state's affairs. People may be tried in religious courts if
they wish, but civil courts are the norm.
The population consists of 92 percent
Sunni Muslims, 6 percent Christian (majority
Greek Orthodox, but some Greek Catholics (Melkites) and
Roman Catholics,
Syrian Orthodox,
Coptic Orthodox,
Armenian Orthodox, and
Protestant
denominations), and 2 percent other (several small
Shia Muslim and
Druze populations).[50]
Christians made up 30% of the Jordanian population in 1950.[57]
However,
emigration to
Europe, Canada
and the
United States and lower birth rates compared to Muslims has significantly
decreased the ratio of the Christian population.[57]
Parliament
The 1952 Constitution provided for the establishment of the bicameral
Jordanian National Assembly (‘Majlis al-Umma’). The Parliament consists of
two Chambers: The Chamber of Deputies (‘Majlis al-Nuwaab’) and the Senate (‘Majlis
al-Aayan’; literally, ‘Assembly of Notables’). The Senate has 55 Senators, all
of whom are directly appointed by the King,[58]
whilst the Chamber of Deputies/House of Representatives has 80 elected members
representing 12 constituencies. Of the 80 members of the Lower Chamber, 71 must
be Muslim and 9 Christians, with six seats held back specifically for women. The
Constitution ensures that the Senate cannot be more than half the size of the
Chamber of Deputies.
The constitution does not provide a strong system of
checks and balances within which the Jordanian Parliament can assert its
role in relationship to the monarch. During the suspension of Parliament between
2001 and 2003, the scope of King Abdullah II’s power was demonstrated with the
passing of 110 temporary laws. Two of such laws dealt with election law and were
seen to reduce the power of Parliament.[59][60]
Term
Senators have terms of four years and are appointed by the King and can be
reappointed. Prospective Senators must be at least forty years old and have held
senior positions in either the government or military. Appointed Senators have
included former Prime Ministers and Members of the Chamber of Deputies. Deputies
are elected to also serve a four year term. Candidates must be older than
thirty-five, cannot have blood ties to the King, and must not have any financial
interests in government contracts.[61]
Political
parties
The reforms of 1989 legalized political parties and opposition movements. The
result is over 30 political parties, but the only political party that plays a
role in the legislature is the
Islamic Action Front (IAF). Political parties can be seen to represent four
sections: Islamists, leftists, Arab nationalists and liberals. Some other
political parties in Jordan including the Jordanian Arab Democratic Party,
Jordanian Socialist Party, and Muslim Centre Party, but these have little impact
on the political process.
Immigration
Jordan has one of the highest
immigration rates in the world.
Iraqis,
Palestinians,
Lebanese,
Syrians,
Egyptians,
Armenians,
Circassians,
Iranians,
Turks, and
Chechens are just some of the nationalities that make up Jordan's diverse
background. In addition, there are several hundreds of thousands migrant workers
from
Indonesia, the
Phillipines,
India,
Sri Lanka, and
Bangladesh
employed in Jordanian
QIZs,
households, and construction projects. Ethnic Jordanians only make up about a
quarter of the population with some even estimating it at less. Jordan's
political stability, ethnic and religious toleration, peace with all its
neighbors, and a higher quality of life make Jordan a favourite destination for
refugees and political asylum seekers.
Human
rights
According to King Hussein's website, Jordan "has consistently been cited by
Amnesty International as the country with the best human rights record in
the region."[62]
However, there are still several issues that continue to cause some concern for
human rights watchdogs like administrative detention, so called "honour
killings", and slow democratic reforms. Jordan ranked as "Not Free" in
Freedom House's 2008 Press Freedom rankings[63].
Jordan’s civil liberties and political rights ranked 5.0 "Partly Free" near "Not
Free" in Freedom House's 2009 rankings, a drop from last year. Jordan has the
5th freest press in the Arab World out of 21 countries.
[64][65].
The Kingdom is committed to freedom of expression and choice. Measured by the
Annual Freedom House survey, Jordan ranks third in the Middle East on major
areas of freedom, from investment to expression.[66]
Also, Jordan enjoys transparent governance, ranking 4th among Arab countries
in the 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index issued by Transparency International,
after Qatar, UAE and Bahrain. Further efforts to enhance its position include
ratifying the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) where Jordan
emerged as a regional leader in spearheading efforts to promote the UNCAC and
its implementation.[67]
Amnesty International showed concern about the practices of torture and
ill-treatment in Jordan, "as well as the link between torture, unfair trials,
and the death penalty."[68]
Amnesty International also showed concern about
death-penalty rulings in Jordan "because there is a pattern of death
sentences, and sometimes executions, occurring as a result of unfair trials
where confessions extracted under torture are used as evidence against the
defendants".[68]
According to the same Amnesty International report, there is a pattern of
suppression of freedom of expression and association in Jordan.[68]
According to Amnesty, "The practice of killing women and girls by husbands or
family members because they have allegedly engaged in behavior that goes against
social norms (so-called "honor
killings") continues to be a problem in Jordan; with an average of 20
Jordanian women killed each year. Measures calling for stricter punishment for
those committing honor killings have failed to be enacted"[68]
Three years ago, the government abolished the section of the penal code that
allowed those convicted of honor killings to receive sentences as lenient as six
months in prison. The judiciary has not, however, put them on an equal footing
with other homicides, which are punishable by up to 15 years in jail. Honor
crime offenders typically get anywhere between seven-and-a-half years in jail to
commuted sentences after being pardoned by the slain woman's parents, which is
usually their own family.[69]
Recently, the Judicial Ministry established a special tribunal for honor crimes
that would speed up trials which would often take up to 18 months.[70]
Amnesty also reported on the abuse of foreign domestic workers in Jordan.
These violations surfaced after hundreds of Filipino maids fled to their embassy
to escape abuse. It said that many workers out of a total of 70.000 suffer human
rights violations.[68]
In August of 2009 a new law aimed at improving the rights of domestic workers
was passed by the cabinet. The reported improvements include religious freedom,
healthcare, 10-hour workdays, one contact per month with the worker's homeland
at the employer's expense, 14 day paid annual leave and 14 days of paid sick
leave per year.
The Jordanian Constitution provides for the freedom to practice one's
religion in accordance with the customs in the Kingdom, unless they violate
public order or morality. Jordan's state religion is Islam. The Government bans
conversion from Islam and efforts to proselytize Muslims.
Religious freedom in Jordan declined in 2008. The Jordanian government's
handling of apostasy cases, expulsion of approximately thirty foreign Christian
religious workers, and various cases of individual and organizational harassment
based on religious beliefs all contributed to the decline. Members of
unrecognized religious groups and converts from Islam face legal discrimination
and risk the loss of civil rights, including threats to them and/or family.
Shari'a courts have the authority to prosecute proselytizers and converts from
Islam. In February of 2008, the government began enforcing an ordinance which
"makes proselytizing a criminal offense,". The ordinance mandates "that anyone
who makes, stores or distributes printed documents, or audiovisual materials
with the intent of 'shaking the faith' of a Muslim may face a maximum of five
years' imprisonment" and a fine equivalent to 7,100 dollars.
There were several problems pertaining to religious freedom in Jordan. These
problems were mainly faced by Christians and other non-Muslims and included,
mass deportation, annulling of marriages, the taking to court without legal
representation, the denial of re-entry into Jordan after having been outside the
country, the denial of residency renewal, the detention of various Christians
and non-Muslims, one of which was detained for 20 hours at Queen Alia
International Airport,and the closing of several Churches in the country.[71]
Despite these cases, Christians are well integrated into the Kingdom’s
political and economic landscapes. At least one Christian holds a ministerial
post in every government, eight seats in the 110-seat Parliament, and a similar
number is appointed to the Upper House by the King. They serve in the military,
many have high positions in the army, and they have established good relations
with the royal family.
[72]
Economy
Jordan is a small country with limited
natural resources. The country is currently exploring ways to expand its
limited water supply and use its existing water resources more efficiently,
including through regional cooperation. The country depends on external sources
for the majority of its energy requirements. During the 1990s, its crude
petroleum needs were met through imports from
Iraq and
neighboring countries. Since early 2003, oil has been provided by some
Gulf Cooperation Council member countries. In addition, the
Arab Gas Pipeline from
Egypt to the
southern port city of
Aqaba was completed in 2003. The government plans to extend this pipeline
north to the Amman area and beyond. Since 2000, exports of light manufactured
products, principally textiles and garments manufactured in the
Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) that enter the United States tariff and
quota free, have been driving economic growth. Jordan exported €5.6 million
($6.9 million) in goods to the U.S. in 1997, when two-way trade was €321 million
($395 million); it exported €538 million ($661 million) in 2002 with two-way
trade at €855 million ($1.05 billion). Similar growth in exports to the United
States under the bilateral
US-Jordan Free Trade Agreement that went into effect in December 2001, to
the European Union under the bilateral Association Agreement, and to countries
in the region, holds considerable promise for diversifying Jordan's economy away
from its traditional reliance on exports of
phosphates and potash, overseas remittances, and foreign aid. The government
has emphasized the information technology (IT) and tourism sectors as other
promising growth sectors. The low tax and low regulation Aqaba Special Economic
Zone (ASEZA)
is considered a model of a government-provided framework for private sector-led
economic growth.
Location of Qualifying Industrial Zones in Jordan
Since
King Abdullah II's accession to the throne in 1999, liberal economic
policies have been introduced which has resulted in a boom lasting for a decade
continuing even through 2009. Jordan is now one of the freest and most
competitive economies in the Middle East scoring higher than the
United Arab Emirates and
Lebanon in
the 2009 Heritage Foundation Index. Jordan's developed and modern banking sector
is becoming the investment destination of choice due to its conservative bank
policies that helped Jordan escape the worst of the global financial crisis of
2009. With instability across the region in
Iraq and
Lebanon,
Jordan is emerging as the "business capital of the
Levant" and the
"the next Beirut".
Jordan's economy has been growing at an annual rate of 7% for a decade.
Jordan has more free trade agreements than any other Arab country. Jordan has
FTA's with the
United States,
Canada,
Singapore,
Malaysia, the
European Union,
Tunisia,
Algeria,
Libya,
Algeria, and
Syria. More FTA's
are planned with Iraq,
the
Palestinian Authority, the
GCC,
Lebanon, and
Pakistan.
Jordan is a member of the
Greater Arab Free Trade Agreement, the
Euro-Mediterranean free trade agreement, and the
Agadir Agreement. Increased investment and exports are the main sources of
Jordan's growth. Continued close integration into the
European Union and
GCC markets will reap vast economic rewards for the Kingdom in the coming
years.
The main obstacles to Jordan's economy is scarce water supplies, complete
reliance on oil imports for energy, and regional instability.
Rapid privatization of previously state-controlled industries and
liberalization of the economy is spurring unprecedented growth in Jordan's urban
centers like Amman
and especially Aqaba.
Jordan has six special economic zones that attract significant amount of
investment amounting in the billions: Aqaba, Mafraq, Ma'an, Ajloun, the Dead
Sea, and Irbid. Jordan also has a plethora of industrial zones producing goods
in the textile,
aerospace,
defense,
ICT,
pharmaceutical, and
cosmetic
sectors.
King Abdullah has repeatedly emphasised that Jordan has a bright future and
that it compares favourably with much of the region on key social and economic
indicators. Even though inflation pushed its way up to the 13% mark in the first
half of 2008, the shocks to the system are far less than in Egypt where
inflation crept up to around 23%. Jordan’s economy has come under some pressure
in 2007 and perhaps more so in 2008, primarily from global increases in oil and
food prices that have affected the government budget and the current account
balance. While Jordan is facing enormous economic pressures, it is managing to
sustain good levels of GDP growth and foreign investment.
There are a number of sectors that have performed well in 2007, including
minerals, pharmaceuticals and tourism. Light industry has to face stronger
competition and rising energy costs. For the construction materials sector,
Chinese goods benefiting from low labour costs and Gulf products capitalising on
low energy costs could make life difficult for many local producers of light
industrial goods. However, Jordan’s free trade agreements, investment incentives
and low transport costs for shipping to major markets are still drawing
producers to the country. Steel and cement producers are not expected to face
the same challenges as light industry and cement production is due to rise, with
two additional plants under construction and likely to provide further export
income. The government is also pushing ahead with the establishment of economic
zones to attract new industry and services to less developed areas of the
country where problems of unemployment and poverty are particularly acute. Gulf
economic growth should ensure more job opportunities for Jordanians in the Gulf
and help to support living standards for many Jordanian families.
However, its domestic developments will be the key to improving conditions.
The government will push ahead with major projects such as the housing
initiative, the economic zones, and attracting knowledge-intensive investments
that require high-skilled labour and vocational programmes in the hope of
creating more jobs and helping to counteract the impact of higher living costs,
while at the same time hoping that global developments do not make its job even
harder.
The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States[73]
that went into effect in December 2001 will phase out duties on nearly all goods
and services by 2010. The agreement also provides for more open markets in
communications, construction, finance, health, transportation, and services, as
well as strict application of international standards for the protection of
intellectual property. In 1996, Jordan and the United States signed a civil
aviation agreement that provides for
open skies
between the two countries, and a U.S.-Jordan treaty for the protection and
encouragement of bilateral investment entered into force in 2003. Jordan has
been a member of the
World Trade Organization since 2000.[2]
Many Iraqi and Palestinian businesses maintain important offices in Jordan.
Due to the instability in these two regions, many Iraqis and Palestinians work
out of Jordan. With Jordan becoming known as the gateway to Iraq and the
Palestinian territories and for its free trade policies, Amman and the Kingdom
of Jordan as a whole has the potential to monopolize business and trade in the
Levant.
In the 2000 Competitive Industrial Performance (CIP) Index, Jordan ranked as
the third most industrialized economy in the Middle East and North Africa,
behind Turkey
and Kuwait.
Jordan was in the upper bracket of nations scored by the CIP index.
[74]
In the 2009 Global Trade Enabling Report, Jordan ranked 4th in the Arab World
behind the
UAE,
Bahrain, and
Qatar. The report
analyzes the country's market access, the country's transport and communications
infrastructure, border administration, and the business enviornment of the
country[75]
Textile and
clothing
exports from Jordan to the United States shot up 2,000 percent from 2000 to
2005, following introduction of the FTA. According to the
National Labor Committee, a U.S.-based
NGO
(Non-Governmental Organization), Jordan has experienced sharp increases in
sweatshop
conditions in its
export-oriented
manufacturing sector.[76]
Jordanian exports in 2006
The proportion of skilled workers in Jordan is among the highest in the
region[77].
The services sector dominates the Jordanian economy. Tourism is a rapidly
growing industry in Jordan with revenues over one billion. Industries such as
pharmaceuticals are emerging as very profitable products in Jordan. The Real
Estate economy and construction sectors continue to flourish with mass amounts
of investments pouring in from the Persian Gulf and Europe. Foreign Direct
Investment is in the billions. The stock market capitalization of Jordan is
worth nearly $40 billion.
Jordan is classified by the
World Bank
as a "lower middle income country." The per-capita
GDP
was approximately USD $5,100 for 2007 and 14.5% of the economically active
population, on average, was unemployed in 2003. Education and literacy rates and
measures of social well-being are very high compared to other countries with
similar incomes. Jordan's population growth rate is high, but has declined in
recent years, to approximately 2.8% currently. One of the most important factors
in the government’s efforts to improve the well-being of its citizens is the
macroeconomic stability that has been achieved since the 1990s. However,
unemployment rates remain high, with the official figure standing at 12.5%, and
the unofficial around 30%. Rates of price inflation are low, at 2.3% in 2003,
and the currency has been stable with an exchange rate fixed to the U.S. dollar
since 1995.
By 2003 onwards following the invasion and occupation of Iraq, Jordan lost
its vital oil grants provided by the regime of
Saddam Hussein. This, combined with soaring world oil prices resulted in an
acceleration of inflation and further pressures a gradual undermining of real
income. So far the government of Jordan has not found means to reduce dependence
on oil (with the exception of gas imports from Egypt).
While pursuing economic reform and increased trade, Jordan's economy will
continue to be vulnerable to external shocks and regional unrest. Without calm
in the region, economic growth seems destined to stay below potential. On the
positive side, however, there is huge potential in the solar energy falling on
Jordan's deserts, not only for the generation of pollution-free electricity but
also for such spin-offs as
desalination of sea water (see
Trans-Mediterranean Renewable Energy Cooperation (TREC)).
Jordan is pinning its hopes on
tourism,
future uranium
and oil shale
exports, trade,
and
ICT for future economic growth.
Brain
Drain and Brain Gain
Jordan is an intresting case in the concept of
brain
drain and
brain gain. There are several hundred thousand highly-skilled Jordanians
that work in the oil rich
Gulf. The major
pull reasons for Jordanians to work abroad are higher wages in wealthier
nations, high unemployement, and high cost of living with salaries barely able
to reach self-sufficiency in their native country. Economist Hussem Ayesh said
that Jordanians did not only want to make money just to cover for their daily
needs, a result of high inflation and a hike in the cost of basic commodities;
they also want to make savings but many would not be able to do that here, so
they opt for a job abroad. Jordanians save the least in the entire MENA region
with only 54% of residents save some of their montly wages. Amman was ranked as
the Arab World's most expensive city in 2006 by the Economist Intelligence Unit,
beating Dubai. In
2009, Amman ranked as the 4th most expensive city in the Arab World, behind
Dubai,
Abu Dhabi,
and Beirut.
These young college graduates work in the Gulf where salaries are often twice
or even three times as much as salaries in Jordan. These expatriates work mainly
in
high-tech,
engineering,
construction,
finance, and
medicine
sectors.[78]
Jordanian expatriates send their families about 2.7 billion dollars every year.[79]
However, Jordan is experiencing a brain gain from
Iraq where highly
skilled professionals are escaping the violence in their native country. These
Iraqi expatriates mainly work in medicine, business, and education.
Jordan is also an importer of low skilled and semi-skilled laborers from
Egypt,
Syria,
South Asia,
Indonesia,
and the
Phillipines. There are about three to four hundred thousand migrant workers
of this type. Recently, these migrant workers were incorporated into the
Kingdom's labor laws giving them a wide range of benefits and rights and access
to legal protection, the first
Arab country to do so.[80]
Natural
resources
Jordan contains significant deposits of both
oil shale
and sources of
uranium; these potential sources of indigenous energy have been the focus of
renewed interest in recent years. There are also modest reserves of
phosphates and, more recently,
natural
gas that have been exploited for decades. Jordan, however, is one of the
most water-scarce countries in the world and considerable water is required to
develop these resources, particularly oil shale.
Natural
gas
Natural gas was discovered in Jordan in 1987, and the estimated size of the
reserve discovered was about 230 billion cubic feet, and quantities are very
modest compared with its neighbours. It was the development of the Risha field
in the Eastern Desert beside the Iraqi border, and the field produces nearly 30
million cubic feet of gas a day, to be sent to a nearby power plant to produce
nearly 10% of the Jordan's Electric needs.[81]
Oil
shale
Despite the fact that reserves of crude oil are non-commercial, Jordan
possesses one of the world's richest stockpiles of oil shale where there are
huge quantities that could be commercially exploited in the central and northern
regions west of the country. The extent the World Energy Council reserves Jordan
approximately 40 billion tons, which established it as the second richest state
in rock oil reserves after Canada (estimated), and first at the world's level of
proven discoveries at a rate of extraction of oil up to between 8% and 12% of
content, and could be the production of 4 billion tons of oil from the current
reserve, which puts the quality of Jordanian oil on the one hand extraction, on
an equal footing with their counterparts in western
Colorado in
the United States, which its estimated amount may rise to 20 billion tons. The
moisture content and ash within is relatively low. And the total thermal value
is 7.5 megajoules/kg, and the content of ointments reach 9 percent of the weight
of the organic content.
[82] Jordan
recently signed a deal with
Royal Dutch Shell to extract and exploit shale oil reserves in central
Jordan. It is expected Jordan will produce its first commercial quantities of
oil in 10–12 years.
Also, the Natural Resource Authority (NRA) is in the final phases of
preparing an agreement with Eesti Energia under which the Estonian energy firm
is expected to invest an estimated of $7 billion in the sector.
According to NRA Director Maher Hijazeen, some 700 direct jobs and over 3,000
indirect employment opportunities will be generated by the venture, which is
expected to produce 35,000 barrels of oil daily within the next 10 years. Under
the agreement, JEML would produce 50,000 barrels of oil a day, 35 per cent of
the Kingdom’s energy consumption in “less than 10 years”, creating a
“significant” number of jobs, the NRA director said. The 45-year concessions,
which are separate blocks in Al Attarat and Lajoun in the central region, will
be signed within the next two to three months and then referred to Parliament
for approval.
Previous NRA studies have revealed that 40 billion tonnes of oil shale exist
in 21 sites concentrated near the Yarmouk River, Buweida, Beit Ras, Rweished,
Karak, Madaba and Maan.
A switch to power plants operated by oil shale has the potential to reduce
Jordan's energy bill by at least 40–50 per cent, according to the National
Electric Power Company.[83]
Phosphates
There are
phosphate mines in the south of the kingdom, making Jordan the third largest
source of this mineral in the world.[citation
needed] Potassium, salt, natural gas and stone are the most
important other substances extracted. Phosphates are carried by rail from the
mines to the port of
Aqaba where it is shipped via cargo ship to other ports.
Uranium
Jordan has one of the largest uranium reserves in the world. Jordan's
reserves account for 2% of the world's total uranium. It's estimated that Jordan
can extract 80,000 tons of uranium from its uranic ores, and the country's
phosphate reserves also contain some 100,000 tons of uranium. Jordan plans that
by 2035, 60% of the country's total energy consumption will be from nuclear
energy. 4 nuclear power plants are planned to be built in Jordan with the first
one to be operational in 2017.
Water
Transportation
Being that Jordan is a transit country for goods and services to the
Palestinian territories and
Iraq, Jordan
maintains a well developed tranportation infrastructure.
There are three airports, all receiving and sending international commercial
flights, two of them in
Amman and the
third is located in the city of
Aqaba. The
largest airport in the country is
Queen Alia International Airport in Amman that serves as the hub of the
regional airline
Royal Jordanian. The airport is currently under significant expansion in a
bid to make it the hub for the Levant.
Marka International Airport was the country's main airport before it was
replaced by
Queen Alia Airport but it still serves several regional routes.
King Hussein International Airport serves
Aqaba with
connections to Amman and several regional and international cities.
Jordan has a well-developed road infrastructure with 8,000 kilometers of
paved highways.
A National Rail System was approved by the Jordanian Government which will
connect all major cities and towns by passenger and cargo rail. There are two
lines to be constructed. The North-South Line passing through Mafraq, Zarqa,
Amman, Maan, and Aqaba with international connections to Syria and Saudi Arabia.
The East-West Line will run from Mafraq, Irbid, and Azraq with international
connections to Iraq and possibly Israel. The national rail system will be
completed by 2013. These routes are planned to be electrified. There are also
plans for a light rail system operating between Amman and Zarqa and a funicular
and a three line metro system for Amman.
A phosphate train at Ram station
Two connected but non-contiguously operated sections of the
Hedjaz Railway exist:
Jordan shares the longest common borders with the
West Bank,
there are two border crossings between Jordan and
Israel in the
Bisan merge (King Hussein Bridge) in the north in the Wadi Araba in the south.
The Port of Aqaba is Jordan's sole outlet to the sea. It handles all cargo
bound to Jordan, Iraq,and in some cases the West Bank. The Main Port is being
relocated further south and being expanded. An Abu Dhabi consortium will handle
the $5 billion dollar deal. The project is set to be completed in 2013.
Currency
and exchange rates
The official currency in Jordan is the
Jordanian dinar and divides into 10 dirham, 100 qirsh (also called piastres)
or 1000 fils. In 1949, banknotes were issued by the government in denominations
of 500 fils, 1, 5 ,10 and 50 dinar. From 1959, the
Central Bank of Jordan took over note production. 20 dinar notes were
introduced in 1977, followed by 50 dinar in 1999. ½ dinar notes were replaced by
coins in 1999. Coins were introduced in 1949 in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20,
50 and 100 fils. The first issue of 1 fils were mistakenly minted with the
denomination given as "1 fil". 20 fils coins were minted until 1965, with 25
fils introduced in 1968 and ¼ dinar coins in 1970. The 1 fils coin was last
minted in 1985. In 1996, smaller ¼ dinar coins were introduced alongside ½ and 1
dinar coins. Since
October 23,
1995, the
dinar has been officially pegged to the
IMF's
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs). In practice, it is fixed at 1
U.S. dollar = 0.709 dinar most of the time, which translates to
approximately 1 dinar = 1.41044 dollars[84][85].
The Central Bank buys U.S. dollars at 0.708 dinar, and sell U.S. dollars at
0.710 dinar[86].
Tourism
The treasury, as seen from al-Siq.
An Arabian Desert castle in Al Azrak.
The Corinthian columns are a popular tourist attraction in
Jerash.
Tourism is a very important sector of the Jordanian economy, contributing
between 10 percent and 12 percent to the country's Gross National Product in
2006. In addition to the country's political stability, the geography offered
makes Jordan an attractive tourism destination. In 2008, there were over 3
million tourist arrivals to Jordan. Jordan earned over 3 billion dollars in
revenue from the tourist industry. Opodo and Travel Guides named Jordan as the
Top Emerging Destination for 2009. Jordan's major tourist activities include
numerous ancient places, its unique desert castles and unspoiled natural
locations to its cultural and religious sites. The best known attractions
include:
- Ancient sightseeing
- Petra
in Ma'an,
the home of the
Nabateans, is a complete city carved in a mountain. The huge rocks
are colorful, mostly pink, and the entrance to the ancient city is
through a 1.25 km narrow gorge in the mountain—called the
Siq. In the
city are various structures, all (except 2) are carved into rock,
including al Khazneh – known as the
Treasury – which has been designated as one of the "New
Seven Wonders of the World" by the for-profit New Open World
Corporation. Other major sites of interest in Petra include the
Monastery, the Roman theater, the Royal Tombs, the High Place of
Sacrifice. Petra was rediscovered for the western world by Swiss
explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812.
- Umm
Qais, a town located on the site of the ruined
Hellenistic-Roman
city of Gadara.
- Ajlun,
famous for the
Al-Rabad Castle.
- Jerash,
famous for its ancient
Roman architecture, including the colonnaded streets, arches, Roman
theaters, and the Oval Plaza.
- Amman
contains the
Roman theater, in addition to several museums, where one may find
remains of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
- Al
Karak contains an important
castle
from the times of
Salah
al-Din, known as Al-Karak Castle.
- Religious sites
- Madaba,
well known for its mosaics, as well as important religious sites such
as:
- Seaside
- Other sites
A sandstone monument in Wadi Rum
-
Wadi Rum is a
desert
full of
mountains and hills located south of Jordan. It is popular for its
sights in addition to a variety of sports that are practiced there, such
as rock-climbing. It is also known for its association with
Lawrence of Arabia.
- Fuheis,
a beautiful town about 20 minutes north-west of Amman.
- Mahis
with important religious sites, and wonderful landscape.
-
Muwakir (Arabic
for Machaerus) was the hilltop stronghold of
Herod the Great. Upon Herod's death, his son Herod Antipas inhabited
the fortress, and ordered
John the Baptist to be beheaded there.
Nature
reserves
Jordan has a number of nature reserves.
Dana Nature Reserve Dana Nature Reserve covers 308 square kilometres.
It is composed of a chain of valleys and mountains which extend from the top of
the Jordan Rift Valley down to the desert lowlands of Wadi Araba. Attractions
include Rummana mountain, the ancient archaeological ruins of Feinan, the Dana
Village and the grandeur of the red and white sandstone cliffs of Wadi Dana. The
Reserve contains a remarkable diversity of landscapes, which range from wooded
highlands to rocky slopes and gravel plains to sand dunes. Dana supports diverse
wildlife including a variety of rare species of plants and animals; Dana is home
to about 600 species of plants, 37 species of mammals and 190 species of birds.
Azraq Wetland Reserve Azraq is a unique wetland oasis located in the
heart of the semi-arid Jordanian eastern desert, one of several beautiful nature
reserves managed by the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN). Its
attractions include several natural and ancient built pools, a seasonally
flooded marshland, and a large mudflat know as Qa'a Al-Azraq. A wide variety of
birds stop at the reserve each year for a rest during their arduous migration
routes between Asia and Africa. Some stay for the winter or breed within the
protected areas of the wetland.
Shawmari Wildlife Reserve The Shawmari Reserve was created in 1975 by
the RSCN as a breeding centre for endangered or locally extinct wildlife. Today,
following breeding programmes with some of the world's leading wildlife parks
and zoos, this small, 22-square-kilometre reserve is a thriving protected
environment for some of the most rare species in the Middle East.
Oryx,
Ostriches,
Gazelles and
Onagers, which
are depicted on many 6th century Byzantine mosaics, are rebuilding their
populations in this safe haven, protected from the hunting and habitat
destruction that nearly wiped them out.
Mujib Nature Reserve
The Mujib Reserve is the lowest nature reserve in the world, with a
spectacular array of scenery near the east cost of the
Dead Sea.
The reserve is located within the deep Wadi Mujib gorge, which enters the Dead
Sea at 410 metres below sea level. The Reserve extends to the Kerak and Madaba
mountains to the north and south, reaching 899 metres above sea level in some
places. This 1,300 metre variation in elevation, combined with the valley's
year-round water flow from seven tributaries, means that Wadi Mujib enjoys a
magnificent bio-diversity that is still being explored and documented today.
Over 300 species of plants, 10 species of carnivores and numerous species of
permanent and migratory birds have been recorded. Some of the remote mountain
and valley areas are difficult to reach, and thus offer safe havens for rare
species of cats, goats and other mountain animals. Mujib's sandstone cliffs are
an ideal habitat for one of the most beautiful mountain goats in the world, the
horned Ibex.
Influence
of the Southwest Asian conflict
The ongoing
Arab-Israeli conflict, the
Persian Gulf War, and other conflicts in
Southwest Asia have made huge impacts on the economy of Jordan. The fact
that Jordan has
peace
with the surrounding countries, combined with its stability, has made it a
preference for many
Palestinians,
Lebanese, and people from the
Persian
Gulf
immigrants and
refugees.
Though this may have resulted in a more active economy, it has also damaged it
by substantially decreasing the amount of resources each person is entitled to.
Jordan has a law that states that any Palestinian may immigrate and obtain
Jordanian citizenship, but must remit his/her Palestinian claim. Palestinians
are not allowed to purchase land unless they give up their Palestinian
citizenship. In November 2005, King Abdullah called for a "war on extremism" in
the wake of three suicide bombings in
Amman.
Opportunity
Cost of Conflict
A report[88]
by
Strategic Foresight Group has calculated the opportunity
cost of conflict for the Middle East from 1991 to 2010 at a whopping $12
trillion (12,000,000,000,000). Jordan’s share in this is almost $84 billion.
Every Jordanian family will also have the opportunity to increase their annual
income by more than $1,250 if peace is established in the region and the
Arab-Israeli boycott is lifted in full.
Drain
on the GDP
The report[89]
also outlines how an extremely significant cost to Jordan is that the country is
host to millions of refugees who make up 40% of their population and are a drain
on 7% of the GDP. Jordan also spends over 5% of its GDP on defense, and has one
of the highest numbers of military personnel in the region, 23,500 military
personnel per million people.
Foreign
relations
Jordan has consistently followed a pro-Western foreign policy and
traditionally has had close relations with the United States and the United
Kingdom. These relations were damaged by Jordan's neutrality and maintaining
relations with Iraq during the first
Gulf War
while still negotiating a peace settlement. Jordan has a well earned reputation
for usually following a pragmatic and non-confrontational foreign policy,
leading to good relations with its neighbours.
Jordan has always been a mediator during times of high tension. During the
1970s,
King Hussein negotiated with
Iran to halt the
military buildup to annex the small Gulf nation of Bahrain. In the 1990s, King
Hussein also tried to mediate the conflict between the United States and
Iraq and tried to
bring an end to hostilities while still condemning the
Iraqi annexation of Kuwait. Jordan has always been at the forefront of
negotiating peace between the Israelis and the Palestinians.
King Abdullah II is the mediator between Israel and the Arab League's
negotiations for peace and normalization of bilateral ties.
King Abdullah II on a visit to The Pentagon.
Following the Gulf War, Jordan largely restored its relations with Western
countries through its participation in the Southwest Asia peace process and
enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq. Relations between Jordan and the
Persian Gulf countries improved substantially after King Hussein's death.
Following the fall of the Iraqi regime, Jordan has played a pivotal role in
supporting the restoration of stability and security to Iraq. The Government of
Jordan signed a memorandum of understanding with the Coalition Provisional
Authority in Iraq to facilitate the training of up to 30,000 Iraqi police cadets
at a Jordanian facility.
Jordan signed a non-belligerency agreement with Israel (the
Washington Declaration) in
Washington, D.C., on 25 July 1994.
King Hussein and
Yitzhak Rabin negotiated this treaty.
Jordan and Israel signed a historic peace treaty on 26 October 1994,
witnessed by President
Bill
Clinton, accompanied by U.S. Secretary,
Warren Christopher. The U.S. has participated with Jordan and Israel in
trilateral development discussions in which key issues have been water-sharing
and security; cooperation on Jordan Rift Valley development; infrastructure
projects; and trade, finance, and banking issues.
Jordan and Israel had generally close relations even before the signing of
the 1994 Peace Treaty. On more than one occasion, Jordan warned Israel of an
impending attack by
Syria and Egypt.
Also, during the
Black September conflict in Jordan, Israel warned
Syria that any
Syrian intervention on the side of the PLO against the Jordanian monarchy would
result in an Israeli attack.
Israel and
Jordan along with
Lebanon were already negotiating a peace treaty as early as the 1950s but a
string of assassinations including
Jordanian
and Lebanese
ambassadors and the
King of Jordan himself, stopped such an attempt at peace. However, this
friendship has been damaged several times due to the worsening situation in the
Palestinian territories and the slow peace process with the Palestinians. As a
result, right-wing Jordanian lawmakers then proposed a bill in the
Jordanian Parliament in which the peace treaty between
Israel and
Jordan would be freezed. However, many speculate whether such a drastic and
radical bill would ever be endorsed by the government.
[90]
Jordan also participates in the multilateral peace talks. Jordan belongs to
the UN and several of its specialized and related agencies, including the
World Trade Organization (WTO), the
International Meteorological Organization (IMO),
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and the
World Health Organization (WHO). Jordan also is a member of the
World Bank,
International Monetary Fund (IMF),
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC),
Nonaligned Movement (NAM), and
Arab
League.
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