History
Stone
Age
Wattayah, located in the
governorate of
Muscat, is the oldest human settlement and dates to the
Stone Age,
making it around 10,000 years old. Archaeological remains from different dates
have been discovered here, the earliest representing the
Stone Age,
then the Heliocentric Age and finally, the
Bronze Age.
Findings have consisted of stone implements, animal bones, shells and fire
hearths. The latter date back to 7615
BC and are the oldest
signs of human settlement in the area.
Other discoveries include hand-moulded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze
Age marks, heavy flint implements made from slivers of
quartz, and
sharp, pointed tools and scrapers. On a
mountain
rock-face in the same district, animal drawings have been discovered. Similar
drawings have also been found in the Wadi Sahtan and Wadi Bani Kharus areas of
Rustaq. These drawings consist of human figures carrying weapons and being
confronted by wild animals. Siwan in Haima is another Stone Age location and
some of the archaeological finds have included arrowheads, knives, chisels and
circular stones which have been used to throw at animals.
Oman
before Islam
Oman's Names Sumerian tablets refer to a country called Magan,
a name thought to refer to Oman’s ancient copper mines. Mezoun is derived
from the word muzn, which means abundant flowing water. The name we call
the country by today, Oman, is believed to originate from the Arab tribes who
migrated to its territory from the Uman region of Yemen. Many tribes settled in
Oman making a living by fishing, herding or stock breeding and many present day
Omani families are able to trace their ancestral routes to other parts of
Arabia.
From the 6th century BC to the arrival of
Islam in the 7th
century AD, Oman was controlled and/or influenced by three Persian
dynasties, the
Achaemenids,
Parthians and
Sassanids. Achaemenids in the 6th century BC controlled and influenced the
Oman peninsula. This was most likely exerted from a coastal center such as
Sohar. By about
250 B.C. the
Parthian
dynasty brought the
Persian
Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman.
Because they needed to control the
Persian
Gulf trade route, the
Parthians established garrisons in Oman. In the third century A.D. the
Sasanids succeeded the
Parthians and held the area until the rise of
Islam four
centuries later.[4]
The
arrival of Islam
On the advent of
Islam, the religion reached Oman during the Islamic prophet
Muhammad's lifetime. The conversion of Omanis is usually ascribed to
Amr ibn al-As, who visited the region by the middle of the seventh century
AD. The Omanis were among the first people to embrace Islam voluntarily In
around 630 AD when the Muhammed sent his envoy Amr ibn Al As to meet Jaifar and
‘Abd, the joint rulers of Oman at that time - to invite them to accept the
faith.
In accepting Islam, Oman became an Ibadhi state, ruled by an elected leader,
the Imam. During the early years of the Islamic mission Oman played a major role
in the Wars of Apostasy that occurred after the death of Muhammad and also took
part in the great Islamic conquests by land and sea in Iraq, Persia and beyond.
However, its most prominent role in this respect was through its extensive
trading and seafaring activities in East Africa, particularly during the19th
century, when it propagated Islam in many of East Africa’s coastal regions, and
certain areas of Central Africa.
Omanis also carried the message of Islam with them to China and the Asian
ports.Oman was ruled by
Umayyads between 661-750,
Abbasids between 750-931, 932-933 and 934-967,
Qarmatians
between 931-932 and between 933-934,
Buyids between 967-1053,
Seljuks of Kirman between 1053-1154.
The
Portuguese settlement
The
Portuguese occupied Muscat for a 140-year period 1508–1648, arriving a
decade after
Vasco
da Gama discovered the seaway to
India. In need of
an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the
Europeans built
up and fortified the city, where remnants of their
colonial architectural style still remain.
Revolting tribes drove out the
Portuguese,
but were pushed out themselves about a century later 1741 by the leader of a
Yemeni tribe
leading a massive army from various other tribes, who began the current line of
ruling sultans. A brief
Persian invasion a few years later was the final time Oman would be ruled by
a foreign power. Oman has been self governing ever since.
Oman
and East African Empire
The Sultan's Palace buildings in Zanzibar which was once Oman's
capital and residence of its Sultans.
In the 1690s
Saif bin Sultan, the
imam of Oman, pressed down the
east
African coast.
A major obstacle was
Fort Jesus,
housing the garrison of a
Portuguese settlement at
Mombasa.
After a two-year siege, it fell to
Saif in 1698.
Thereafter the Omanis easily ejected the
Portuguese
from Zanzibar
and from all other coastal regions north of
Mozambique.
Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main
slave market of the east African coast, and became an increasingly important
part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the greatest 19th
century
sultan of Oman,
Sa'id ibn Sultan, to make it from 1837 his main place of residence. Sa'id
built impressive palaces and gardens in Zanzibar. He improved the island's
economy by introducing
cloves, sugar
and indigo
though at the same time he accepted a financial loss in cooperating with
British attempts to end Zanzibar's
slave trade. The link with Oman was broken after his death in 1856.
Rivalry between his two sons was resolved, with the help of forceful British
diplomacy, when one of them,
Majid, succeeded to Zanzibar and to the many regions claimed by the family
on the
east African
coast. The other,
Thuwaini, inherited
Muscat and Oman.
Dhofar
rebellion
The Dhofar Rebellion was launched in the province of
Dhofar against the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman and
Britain
from 1962 to 1975. It ended with intervention of Iranian Imperial Forces and
defeat of the rebels, but the state of Oman had to be radically reformed and
modernized to cope with the campaign.
Politics
Chief of state and government is the hereditary sultān,
Qaboos bin Said Al Said who appoints a cabinet called the "Diwans"
to assist him. In the early 1990s, the sultan instituted an elected advisory
council, the
Majlis ash-Shura, though few Omanis were eligible to
vote.
Universal suffrage for those over 21 was instituted on
4 October
2003. Over
190,000 people (74% of those registered) voted to elect the 84 seats.[5]
Two women were elected to seats. The country today has three women ministers
Rawiyah bint Saud al Busaidiyah - Minister of Higher Education,
Sharifa bint Khalfan al Yahya'eyah - Minister of Social Development and
Rajiha bint Abdulamir bin Ali al lawati - Minister of Tourism. There are no
legal political parties nor, at present, any active opposition movement. As more
and more young Omanis return from education abroad, it seems likely that the
traditional, tribal-based political system will have to be adjusted.[6]
A State Consultative Council, established in 1981, consisted of 55 appointed
representatives of government, the private sector, and regional interests.
Military
Oman's armed forces, including Royal Household troops foreign personnel
numbered 41,700 in 2002. The army had 25,000 personnel equipped with over 100
main battle tanks and 37
Scorpion tanks. The air force of 4,100 operates 40
combat aircraft. The navy numbers 4,200 with 13 patrol and coastal
combatants.
Paramilitary includes the Tribal Home Guard (Firqats) of 4,000 organized in
small tribal teams, a police coast guard of 400, and a small police air wing.
The elite Royal Household brigade, naval unit, and air unit number 6,400,
including 2 special forces regiments.
In 2001 Oman spent $2.4 billion on defense or 12.2% of GDP.The greater number
of the troops are mercenaries from the Mekran coast of Gwadar which was under
Oman till 1955. However under a deal the people can be recruited into the
Omanese army.
Governorates
and regions of Oman
The Sultanate is divided into nine governorates and regions. Each governorate
consists of states share common cultures, habits, Arabic dialects, history,
traditional clothing and traditional occupations.
The
Governorate of Muscat is the most densely populated region in the Sultanate
with a population of more than half a million. It is Oman's political, economic,
and
administrative center. Muscat is host to a balance between the traditional
heritage of
Omani society and the modern contemporary features. This preserves Oman’s
historical and cultural identity while presenting Muscat's embrace of modernity.
The
Governorate of Dhofar is in the far south of the Sultanate and borders on
the
Wusta Region the east, the
Arabian
Sea to the south, the
Republic of Yemen to the west and the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the north and north-west.
The
Governorate of Musandam lies in extreme north of the Sultanate. It is
separated from the rest of the Sultanate by a strip of
United Arab Emirates land. It is distinguished for its
strategic location, with a section of it known as Ras Musandam overlooking
the international water passage called the
Strait of Hormuz.
It is worth noting that not the whole of the Strait is good for navigation.
The part suitable for sea navigation falls within the territorial waters of the
Sultanate, requiring Omanis to shoulder a large responsibility in organizing
navigation in this
Strait for centuries. The strategic importance of this Strait has increased
recently, as it has become a crossing point for 90% of the
Persian Gulf's oil
shipped to all over the world.
The
Governorate of Buraimi is situated in the northwest corner of the Sultanate,
adjacent to the borders with
United Arab Emirates . It has a number of historic
forts and houses. Its main forts are
al Khandaq, which has been adopted as the emblem of the Governorate , and Al
Hillah Fort. Both these forts have recently been restored by the Ministry of
National Heritage and Culture.
The
Batinah Region occupies a coastal strip along the
Gulf of
Oman from the state of
Barka
in the south to
Khatmat Malahah in the state of
Shinas to the
north. The wide strip is enclosed by the
Gulf of
Oman to the east and the foothills of the
Western Hajar mountains to the
west.
The
Ad Dhahirah Region is a semi desert plain which slopes from the southern
foot of
Al Hajr AI Gharbi Mountains towards the
Empty Quarter. It is separated from
A’Dakhliyah Region by
Al Kur Mountain to the East; it joins the
Empty Quarter from the West and
Wusta Region from the south. state of
Ibri is
distinguished for its unique location which joins the Sultanate with other areas
in the
Arabian Peninsula.
The
Dakhiliah Region is rich in economic and
natural resources and has numerous
tourist attractions including
forts,
castles, towers, old residential quarters and historic
mosques. The state of
Nizwa has a
famous and imposing fort, several old
mosques and a traditional
souq, while
Bahla Fort
is one of the treasures of the human heritage.
Misfah al Abriyeen in the state of
al Hamra is
a splendid example of a hanging village.
The
Sharqiyah Region forms the northeast coast of Oman and overlooks the
Arabian
Sea from the east. It includes the internal side of
Al Hajr Al sharqi mountains which join it from the north. It also joins
Wahibah Sand from the south and
Dakhliah Region from the west. The city of Sur is one of the regional
centers and the most important of Sharqiyah cities. It played a historical rule
in trade and navigation in the
Indian
Ocean. It was also known for ship building, as it was the most renowned city
in the
Arabian Peninsula in ship building in the last century. Besides marine
activity and ship building, Sur is famous for some historical tourist
destinations such as caves. It is also well-known for its wood industries,
textiles and
agricultural crops.
The
Wusta Region is situated to the south of both
Dakhliah and
Dhahirah Regions, at the east side it is linked to the
Arabian
Sea, at the west to the
Empty Quarter and at the south to Governorate of
Dhofar. It includes a large central area of the Sultanate. It is
distinguished for having a great number of
oil wells.
Geography
| Geography of
Oman |
|
Coastline |
2,092 km |
|
Bordering countries |
Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen |
| |
Desert landscape in Oman.
A vast gravel desert plain covers most of central Oman, with mountain ranges
along the north (al
Jebel al Akhdar) and southeast coast, where the country's main cities are
also located: the capital city
Muscat,
Matrah and
Sur in
the north, and
Salalah in the south.
Oman's climate is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the coast.
During past epochs Oman was covered by ocean. Fossilized shells exist in great
numbers in areas of the desert away from the modern coastline.
The peninsula of
Musandam (Musandem), which has a strategic location on the
Strait of Hormuz, is separated from the rest of Oman by the
United Arab Emirates and is thus an
exclave. The series of small towns known collectively as
Dibba are the
gateway to the Musandam peninsula on land and the fishing villages of Musandam
by sea. Boats may be hired at Khasab for trips into the Musandam peninsula by
sea.
Oman has one other exclave, inside UAE territory, known as
Madha. It is
located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the rest of Oman.[7]
Belonging to
Musandam governorate, it covers approximately 75 km² (29 sq mi). The
boundary was settled in 1969. The north-east corner of Madha is closest to the
Fujairah
road, barely 10 m (32.8 ft) away. Within the exclave is a UAE enclave called
Nahwa, belonging
to the Emirate of Sharjah. It is about 8 km (5 mi) on a dirt track west of the
town of New Madha. It consists of about forty houses with its own clinic and
telephone exchange.[8]
Climate
Annual
rainfall in Muscat averages 10 cm (4 in), falling mostly in January. Dhofar
is subject to the southwest
monsoon, and
rainfall up to 64 cm (25 in) has been recorded in the rainy season from late
June to October. While the mountain areas receive more plentiful rainfall, some
parts of the coast, particularly near the island of
Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The
climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching 54°C (129°F) in the
hot season, from May to September.
Flora
and fauna
Desert shrub and desert
grass, common to
southern Arabia, are found. Vegetation is sparse in the interior plateau, which
is largely gravel
desert. The greater monsoon rainfall in Dhofar and the mountains makes the
growth there more luxuriant during summer.
Coconut palms grow plentifully in Dhofar and
Frankincense grows in the hills.
Oleander and varieties of
Acacia abound.
Indigenous
mammals include the
Leopard,
Hyena,
Fox,
Wolf, and Hare,
Oryx,
Ibex,
Tahr. Birds include
the Vulture,
Eagle,
Stork,
Bustard,
Arabian
Partridge,
Bee Eater,
Falcon and
Sunbird.
Environment
Maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic use is
Oman's most pressing environmental problem. The nation has limited
renewable
water resources, with 94% used in farming and 2% for industrial activity.
Drinking water is available throughout the country, either piped or delivered.
Both drought and limited rainfall contribute to shortages in the nation's water
supply.
The nation's soil has shown increased levels of salinity. Pollution of
beaches and other coastal areas by oil tanker traffic through the
Strait of Hormuz and
Gulf of
Oman is also a persistent problem.
In 2001, the nation had nine
endangered species of
mammals and five
endangered types of
bird. Nineteen
plant species are also threatened with extinction. Decrees have been passed
to protect endangered species, which include the
Arabian Leopard,
Arabian oryx,
mountain gazelle,
goitered gazelle,
Arabian tahr,
green sea turtle,
hawksbill turtle and
olive ridley turtle. In 2007 Oman's Arabian Oryx Sanctuary became the first
site ever deleted from UNESCO's World Heritage list because of the government's
decision to reduce the site to 10% of its former size.[9]
Demographics
| Demographics of
Oman |
|
Languages |
Arabic,English,Balochi and Swahili |
|
Religion |
Islam |
|
Ethnic groups |
Arab, South Asian and African |
|
Life expectancy |
73.13 years |
| |
The Ministry of Economy estimates that in mid 2006 the total population was
2.577 million. Of those, 1.844 million were Omanis. The population has grown
from 2.018 million in the 1993 census to 2.340 million in the 2003 census.
In Oman, about 50% of the population lives in
Muscat
and the
Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital; about 200,000 live in the
Dhofar (southern) region, and about 30,000 live in the remote
Musandam Peninsula on the
Strait of Hormuz.
Some 600,000 expatriates live in Oman, most of whom are guest workers from
Pakistan,
Bangladesh,
Egypt,
Jordan,
India and the
Philippines.
|
Historical populations |
| Year |
Pop. |
|
Change |
|
| 1910 |
249,000 |
|
16.4% |
| 1920 |
290,000 |
|
16.5% |
| 1930 |
337,000 |
|
16.2% |
| 1940 |
392,000 |
|
16.3% |
| 1950 |
413,000 |
|
5.4% |
| 1960 |
505,000 |
|
22.3% |
| 1970 |
654,000 |
|
29.5% |
| 1980 |
1,060,000 |
|
62.1% |
| 1990 |
1,625,000 |
|
53.3% |
| 2000 |
2,402,000 |
|
47.8% |
| Est. 2006 |
2,577,000 |
|
7.3% |
Religion
About 75% of the population consists of
Ibadhi Muslims.[10]
Sunni Muslims, Shi'i Muslims, and other minorities make up the remainder of the
population.[10]
The Government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation, but most
citizens are either Ibadhi or Sunni Muslims. Shi'a Muslims form a small but
well-integrated minority of less than 5 percent of the population, concentrated
in the capital area and along the northern coast. Ibadhism, a form of Islam
distinct from Shi'ism and the "orthodox" schools of Sunnism, historically has
been the country's dominant religious group, and the Sultan is a member of the
Ibadhi community.
Non-Muslim religious communities individually constitute less than 5 percent
of the population and include various groups of
Hindus,
Buddhists,
Zoroastrians,
Sikhs,
Baha'is, and
Christians.
Christian
communities are centered in the major urban areas of
Muscat, Sohar,
and Salalah and include Roman
Catholic,
Eastern Orthodox, and various Protestant congregations. These groups tend to
organize along linguistic and ethnic lines. More than fifty different Christian
groups, fellowships, and assemblies are active in the Muscat metropolitan area.
The majority of non-Muslims are noncitizen immigrant workers from South Asia,
although there are small communities of ethnic
Indian
Hindus and
Christians that have been naturalized.[11]
Economy
Omani citizens enjoy good
living standards, but the future is uncertain with Oman's limited oil
reserves.[12]
The other sources of income,
agriculture and local industries, are small in comparison and count for less
than 1% of the country's exports. Agriculture, often
subsistence in its character, produces
Dates,
Limes,
Grains and
vegetables.
Less than 1% of the country is under
cultivation but, in general, food has to be imported. Industries contribute
only with 4%, but there are governmental plans to increase this.
Oil production is extracted and processed by
Petroleum Development Oman. In recent years, proven oil reserves have been
holding approximately steady, although oil production has been decreasing.[13][14]
Oman has other mineral resources including
Copper,
Asbestos
and Marble, but
this is little exploited.
Oil
and gas
Commercial export of oil began in 1967 and since Sultan Qaboos' accession to
the throne in 1970, many more oil fields have been found and developed. In June
1999,
PDO discovered a new oil field in southern Oman after drilling and testing
three wells which demonstrated the commercial viability of the reservoir. This
is the most significant find in five years.
Work is continuing on the RO 503.876 million ( US$1,300 million ) oil
refinery project in Sohar, which was due to go into operation in 2006 with a
116,400 barrels a day refining capacity. In 2004, Oman Oil Refinery was supplied
with about 78,200 barrels a day for refining, while
PDO began using steam
injection technology in several wells to increase their productivity. Oman's
future economy is expected to depend on Sohar, which is growing very fast.
Since the slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to
diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas of
industry, such as
tourism and
natural
gas. Oman's Basic Statute of the State expresses in Article 11 that, "The
National Economy is based on justice and the principles of a
free economy."
Mineral
resources
Oman's mineral resources include
chromite,
dolomite,
zinc,
limestone,
gypsum,
silicon,
copper,
gold,
cobalt and
iron. Several
industries have grown up around them as part of the national development process
which, in turn, have boosted the minerals sector’s contribution to the nation’s
GDP as well as providing jobs for Omanis.
Copper has been mined in Oman for thousands of years. The mineral sector’s
operations include mining and quarrying. Several projects have recently been
completed including: an economic feasibility study on
silica ore in Wadi Buwa and Abutan in the Wusta Region, which confirmed that
there were exploitable reserves of around 28 million tonnes at the two sites; a
feasibility study on the production of
magnesium
metal from
dolomite ore; a draft study on processing
limestone
derivatives; a project to produce geological maps of the Sharqiyah Region ;
economic feasibility studies on the exploitation of
gold and copper
ores in the Ghaizeen area; a study on raw materials in the wilayats of Duqm and
Sur
for use in the Sultanate’s
cement
industry; and a study on the construction of a new minerals laboratory in Ghala
in the
Governorate of Muscat.
Industry
The industrial sector is a cornerstone of the Sultanate’s long-term
(1996-2020) development strategy. Industry is not only one of the main sectors
involved in diversifying the sources of national income and reducing dependence
on oil; it is also capable of helping to meet Oman’s
social development needs and generate greater
added
value for national resources by processing them into manufactured products.
The Seventh Five-Year Development Plan creates the conditions for an
attractive
investment climate. Under its strategy for the industrial sector the
government also aims to develop the
information technology and
telecommunications industries. The
Knowledge Oasis Muscat complex has been set up and expanded, and Omani
companies are developing their technological potential through collaboration
with various Japanese and German institutions.
There is also an
industrial estate in
Sohar - where the
Sultanate’s heavy industries are based - as well as other estates in Sur,
Salalah, Nizwa and Buraimi.
Natural
gas is transported to the industrial estates in Sohar and Salalah, helping
to promote expansion of those industries that depend on natural gas; the
government grants these industries tax exemptions, as an incentive to encourage
their expansion and development. By 2020 the industrial sector is expected to
contribute 15% to the country’s GDP.
Development
plans
The Omani economy has been radically transformed over a series of development
plans beginning with the First Five-year Plan (1976-1980). At Sultan Qaboos's
instruction, a vision of Oman's economic future up to the year 2020 was set out
at the end of the first phase of the country's development 1970-1995. Vision
2020, outlined the country's economic and social goals over the 25 years of the
second phase of the development process (1996-2020).
Oman 2020, held in June 1995, has developed the following aims with regard to
securing Oman's future prosperity and growth:
- To have economic and financial stability
- To reshape the role of the Government in the economy and to broaden
private sector participation
- To diversify the economic base and sources of national income
- To globalize the Omani economy
- To upgrade the skills of the Omani workforce and develop human resources
A
free-trade agreement with the
United States took effect 1 January 2009, eliminating tariff barriers on all
consumer and industrial products. It also provides strong protections for
foreign businesses investing in Oman.[15]
Tourism
Oman is known for its popular tourist attractions.
Wadis, deserts,
beaches, and mountains are areas which make Oman unique to its neighboring
GCC nations (Wadis in particular). With a coastline of 1700 km, Oman offers
some of the cleanest, most stunning beaches a visitor could hope to see. Few
beaches are private, except some attached to the beach resort hotels, or those
adjoining military or official property. Weekend picnics and
barbecues
are popular on the beach. Many coves are perfect for snorkelling and with fairly
gentle shelves, are good for children.
Wadis are green, lush oases of palm trees, grasses, and flowering. Some wadis
have year-round running water, with deep, cool pools in which it is quite safe
to swim if the currents are slow.Falaj (pl. aflaaj) means a system for
the distribution of water and is commonly used to describe the irrigation
channel system downstream of the water's source.Some aflaaj in Oman were
built more than 1,500 years ago, whilst others were built at the beginning of
the 20th century. The genius of the Omani builders is evident in the way they
tunnelled into the ground to a depth of dozens of metres in order to gain access
to the groundwater. These channels were truly a miracle of engineering at a time
when mechanical equipment was not available.
Forts and Castles are Oman's most striking cultural landmarks and,
together with its towers and city walls, they have historically been used as
defensive bastions or look-out points. Forts were often the seats of
administrative and judicial authority. There are over 500 forts, castles and
towers in Oman which has a coastline of 1,700 km, so they were needed to protect
it from potential invaders. The architectural styles vary, being determined by
the architects who built them or the periods in which they were built.
The traditional Arabic market place is called the souq and these are
found in many of the towns throughout the Sultanate. One of the oldest preserved
souqs in Oman is in Muttrah, on the Corniche. Gold and silver jewellery is found
in abundance as well as numerous wooden carvings, ornaments and spices. Muttrah
souq is a maze of pathways leading in and out of each other. 'Household' goods
make up the bulk of the souq, but browsing through some of the smaller shops may
result in a lucky find. Bargaining is a must, however. Gold and silver are well
priced and mainly sold by weight. Good buys are silver khanjars (the traditional
Omani dagger, worn by men) and incense burners. Today,the Capital area has a
number of shopping malls, mainly situated in Qurum, but in recent times,
spreading to the Al Khuwair area, which house a variety of shops, ranging from
boutiques to chain stores. The largest mall in the country is the Muscat City
Centre.
Other popular tourist activities include sand skiing in the desert, Scuba
Diving, Rock Climbing/Trekking, Surfing & Sailing, Cave Exploration and Bull
Fight/Camel Race.The Muscat Festival is usually held at the beginning of
every year. During this event, traditional dances are held, temporary theme
parks open, and concerts take place. Another popular event is The Khareef
Festival, which is similar to Muscat Festival; however it is held in August
in Salalah,
Dhofar. During this latter event, mountains are packed as a result of the
cool breeze weather during that period of time which rarely occurs in Muscat.
Labour
The estimated workforce was 920,000 in 2002. A large proportion of the
population were still engaged in subsistence agriculture or fishing. The skilled
local labour force is small, and many of the larger industries depend on foreign
workers from
Pakistan,
Bangladesh,
the
Philippines,
India, and
Sri Lanka
— foreign laborers constituted over 80% of the modern-sector workforce in 1996.
Omani law does not provide the right of
union formation. The law forbids a strike for any reason.
Collective bargaining is not permitted, however there exist labour-management
committees in firms with more than 50 workers. These committees are not
authorized to discuss conditions of employment, including hours and wages. The
Labour Welfare Board provides a venue for grievances.
The minimum working age is 13, but this provision is not enforced against the
employment of children in family businesses or on family farms. The minimum wage
for non-professional workers was $260 per month in 2002. However, many classes
of workers (domestic servants, farmers, government employees) are not required
to receive the minimum wage and the government is not consistent in its
enforcement of the minimum wage law. The private sector working week is 40 to 45
hours long, while government officials have a 35-hour working week.
Inflation
As
oil prices have risen to a record high, so has
inflation.
The government depends mostly on oil revenue, more than on tax returns from
companies and other government-owned companies. The government is also Oman's
largest employer, so the high interest that government gets increases the prices
of food and construction equipment. The government did support the fuel prices
so it doesn't increase the inflation and to make the price suitable for people
on low wages.
In 2006, government employee salaries were increased by 15%, placing Oman in
the category of high-medium income countries.[citation
needed] and a year after increase employees' were also increased in
salaries so, employees with low wages have a higher increase that may go up to
48% and employees who earn more get a lesser increase in their salaries which
end at 5%. The minimum wage has been changed from 120 Rial a month to 140 Rials
because of high records of inflation driven by high prices of oil.
Transport
Education
Before 1970, only three formal schools existed in the whole country with less
than 1000 students receiving education in them. Since Sultan Qaboos came to
power in 1970, the government has given high priority to
education
to develop a domestic work force, which the government considers a vital factor
in the country's economic and social progress. Today there are over 1000 state
schools and about 650,000 students. In 1986, Oman's first university,
Sultan Qaboos University, opened. Other post secondary institutions include
a law school, technical college, banking institute, teachers training college,
and health sciences institute. Some 200 scholarships are awarded each year for
study abroad.
Pre-university education in Oman has three stages: primary, preparatory, and
secondary. Six years of primary schooling are followed by preparatory school.
Academic results of the preparatory exams determine the type of secondary
education the student will receive.
Nine private colleges exist, providing 2-year post secondary diplomas. Since
1999, the government has embarked on reforms in higher education designed to
meet the needs of a growing population, only a small percentage of which are
currently admitted to higher education institutions. Under the reformed system,
four public regional universities will be created, and incentives are provided
by the government to promote the upgrading of the existing nine private colleges
and the creation of other degree-granting private colleges.
The adult illiteracy rate was estimated at 28.1% for the year 2000 (males,
19.6%; females, 38.3%). In 1998, there were 411 primary schools with 313,516
students and 12,052 teachers. Student-to-teacher ratio stood at 26 to 1. In
secondary schools in 1998, there were 12,436 teachers and 217,246 students. As
of 1999, 65% of primary-school-age children were enrolled in school, while 59%
of those eligible attended secondary school. In the same year, public
expenditure on education was estimated at3.9% of GDP. In 1993, there were 252
literacy centers and 176 adult education centers. Three teachers' colleges were
functioning as of 1986. The Institute of Agriculture at Nazwa became a full
college by 1985. Sultan Qaboos University opened in 1986. In 1998, all
higher-level institutions had 1,307 teachers and 16,032 students.
Science
and technology
Most research conducted in Oman has been done at the behest of the
government; agriculture, minerals, water resources, and marine sciences have
drawn the most attention. Sultan Qaboos University, founded in 1985, has
colleges of science, medicine, engineering, and agriculture. In 1987–97, science
and engineering students accounted for 13% of college and university
enrollments.
The Institute of Health Sciences, under the Ministry of Health, was founded
in 1982. Muscat Technical Industrial College, founded in 1984, has departments
of computing and mathematics, laboratory science, and electrical, construction,
and mechanical engineering. The Oman Natural History Museum, founded in 1983,
includes the national herbarium and the national shell collection. All of these
organizations are located in Muscat.
Meteorites
The central desert of Oman is an important source of
meteorites for scientific analysis.[16]
Since 1999, search campaigns in Oman have provided about 20% of the world's
meteorites. These include rare meteorites from
Mars and the
Moon. The meteorite
accumulations in the gravelly central desert play an important role in
increasing knowledge of conditions in the early
solar system.
Health
As of 1999, there were an estimated 1.3 physicians and 2.2 hospital beds per
1,000 people. In 1993, 89% of the population had access to health care services.
In 2000, 40% of the population had access to health care services.[citation
needed].
Culture
Although Arabic is Oman's official language, there are native speakers of
different dialects, as well as Balochi (the language of the Baloch from western-Pakistan
and eastern Iran),
or offshoots of
Southern Arabian, a Semitic language only distantly related to Arabic, but
closely related to
Semitic
languages in
Eritrea and
Ethiopia. Swahili and French are also widely spoken in the country due to
the historical relations between Oman and
Zanzibar
the two languages have been linked historically. The dominant indigenous
language is a dialect of Arabic and the country has also adopted
English as a second language. Almost all signs and writings appear in both
Arabic and English. A significant number also speak
Hindi, due to the
influx of Indian
migrants during the late 1980s and the 1990s.
Oman is famous for its
khanjar
knives, which are curved daggers worn during holidays as part of ceremonial
dress. Today traditional clothing is worn by most Omani men. They wear an
ankle-length, collarless robe called a dishdasha that buttons at the neck with a
tassel hanging down. Traditionally this tassel would be dipped in perfume. Today
the tassel is merely a traditional part of the dishdasha.
Women wear hijabs
and abayas. Some
women cover their faces and hands, but most do not. The abaya is a traditional
dress and it is currently having different styles. The Sultan has forbidden the
covering of faces in public office. On holidays, such as
Eid,
the women wear traditional dress, which is often very brightly colored and
consists of a mid-calf length tunic over pants.
A very important part of Omani culture is hospitality. If invited into an
Omani house, a visitor is likely to be greeted with a bowl of
dates, qahwa (coffee with
cardamom -
standard Arabic قهوة) and fruit. The coffee is served fairly weak in a small
cup, which should be shaken after three servings to show that you have finished.
The dates are in lieu of sugar. Halwa and other sweets are often given at
celebrations such as Eids.
Food
The Omani people are well known for their hospitality and offers of
refreshment. To be invited into someone's home will mean coffee kahwa, a
strong, bitter drink flavoured with cardamom, and dates or halwa, a
sticky sweet gelatinous substance which is made from brown sugar, eggs, honey
and spices. It can be flavoured with many different ingredients, such as nuts,
rosewater or even chocolate. Lokhemat is another accompaniment to coffee, which
are balls of flour and yeast flavoured with cardamom and deep fried until golden
then served with a sweet lime and cardamom syrup. The sweetness of this dish
often counteracts the bitterness of the kahwa.
More substantial meals often have rice as the main ingredient, together with
cooked meats. The main daily meal is usually eaten at midday, while the evening
meal is lighter. Maqbous is a rice dish, tinged yellow with saffron and cooked
over a spicy red or white meat. Aursia is a festival meal, served during
celebrations, which consists of mashed rice flavoured with spices. Another
popular festival meal is shuwa, which is meat cooked very slowly
(sometimes for up to two days) in an underground clay oven. The meat becomes
extremely tender and it is impregnated with spices and herbs before cooking to
give it a very distinct taste. Fish is often used in main dishes too, and the
kingfish is a popular ingredient. Mashuai is a meal comprising whole
spit-roasted kingfish served with lemon rice. The rukhal bread is a thin,
round bread originally baked over a fire made from palm leaves. It is eaten at
any meal, typically served with Omani honey for breakfast or crumbled over curry
for dinner.
Traditional Omani Food
It is fairly simple, but by using various marinades and impregnating meat
with spices, the result is a mouth-watering concoction which stimulates the
tastebuds. Chicken, fish and mutton are regularly used in dishes. A favourite
drink is laban, a salty buttermilk. Yoghurt drinks, flavoured with cardamom and
pistachio nuts are also very popular.
Although spices, herbs, onion, garlic and lime are liberally used in
traditional Omani cuisine, unlike similar Asian food, it is not hot. Omani
cuisine is also distinct from the indigenous foods of other Gulf states and even
varies within the Sultanate's different regions. The differences between some of
the dishes prepared in Salalah, in the south, and those prepared in Muscat, in
the north, are so marked that it is difficult to find anything common between
them. However, one delight that remains a symbol of Omani hospitality throughout
the country are the ubiquitous dates, served with khawa, or Omani coffee.
Khawa is prepared from freshly roasted ground coffee mixed with cardamom powder.
Special dishes are prepared for festive occasions. The Islamic world
celebrates two main religious festivals - Eid Al Fitr and Eid Al Adha.
Eid Al Fitr is celebrated following the Holy Month of Ramadan when people
complete their obligatory fasting for 30 days. Eid Al Adha is celebrated
on completing the Haj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, commemorating the sacrifice of
Abraham. Dishes prepared during Ramadan are very seldom cooked on other
occasions.
Food cooked on important occasions, such as Eid, is of an infinite
variety. Omanis across the country serve an array of dishes. In Dhofar and Wusta,
the festivities start with ruz al mudhroub, a dish made of cooked rice
and served with fried fish, and maqdeed, special dried meat. In Muscat,
Al Batinah, Dahira and Sharqiya regions, muqalab, a dish of tripe and
pluck cooked with crushed or ground spices (cinnamon, cardamom, clove, back
pepper, ginger, garlic and nutmeg), dominates the menu. Other dishes served
during Eid festivities include arsia, a dish of lamb meat cooked with
rice, and mishkak, skewered meat grilled on charcoal.
Lunch on the first day of Eid is usually harees, which is made
from wheat mixed with meat. Lunch on the second day is mishkak, while on
the third and last day, shuwa forms the whole day's meal. However, it is
during Ramadan that one can experience Omani food at its best and two of the
most popular traditional dishes served at Iftar, the breaking of the fast
include sakhana, a thick, sweet soup made of wheat, date, molasses and
milk and fatta, a meat and vegetable dish, mixed with khubz rakhal, thin
Omani bread, made out of unleavened dough.
Shuwa is a typically Omani delicacy prepared only on very special
occasions. Whole villages participate in the cooking of the dish which consists
of a whole cow or goat roasted for up to two days in an special oven prepared in
a pit dug in the ground.
The method of preparing shuwa is elaborate. The meat is marinated with
red pepper, turmeric, coriander, cumin, cardamom, garlic and vinegar and then
wrapped in sacks made of dry banana or palm leaves. These sacks are then thrown
into the smoldering oven, which is covered with a lid and sealed so that no
smoke escapes. In some villages, the meat is cooked for 24 hours while in others
it is believed that meat tastes better after 48 hours.
Everyday Omani cuisine includes a wide variety of soups - vegetable, lentil,
lamb and chicken. Salads are also popular and are usually based around fresh
vegetables, smoked eggplant, tuna fish, dried fish or watercress. Main course
dishes are extensive and range from marak, a vegetable curry, to assorted
kebabs, barbecued, grilled and curried meat, chicken and fish dishes.
Rice is used widely and is served in a variety of ways, from steamed to
elaborate concoctions bursting with meat and vegetables. Breads rage from the
plain to those flavoured with dates, sesame, thyme and garlic. For desert, Omani
halwa, or sweatmeat, is a traditional favourite.
Male
national dress
The national dress for Omani
men
is a simple, ankle-length, collarless gown with long sleeves called the
dishdasha. Underneath the dishdasha, a plain piece of cloth covering the
body is worn from the waist down. Omani men may wear a variety of head dresses.
The mussar is a square of finely woven woollen or cotton fabric, wrapped and
folded into a
turban. Underneath this, the kummah, an intricately embroidered cap, is
sometimes worn.
The shal, a long strip of cloth acting as a holder for the
khanjar may
be made from the same material as the mussar. Alternatively, the holder may be
fashioned in the form of a belt made from leather and silver. On formal
occasions, the dishdasha may be covered by a black or beige cloak, called a
bisht. The embroidery edging the cloak is often in silver or gold thread and
it is intricate in detail. Some men from traditional families carry a stick,
which can have practical uses or is simply used as an accessory during formal
events.
The Khanjar
The curved dagger, the
khanjar is a
distinguishing feature of the Omani personality as well as an important symbol
of male elegance. It is traditionally worn at the waist.
The shape of the
khanjar is
always the same and is characterised by the curve of the blade and by the near
right- angle bend of the sheath. Sheaths may vary from simple covers to ornate
silver or gold-decorated pieces of great beauty and delicacy. In the past the
silver khanjars
were made by melting down Marie Theresa silver coins. Different types of
khanjar are
named after the regions in which they are made and vary according to size,
shape, type of metal and the overlay. The top of the handle of the most usual
khanjar is
flat but the "Saidi" type, which takes its name from the Ruling Family, has an
ornate cross-shaped top. However, all possess certain common features and have
the same components:
- The hilt may be made of costly rhinocerous horn or substitutes such as
sandalwood and marble.
- The blade determines the value of the
khanjar
according to its strength and quality.
- The sadr, or upper part of the sheath, is decorated with silver
engraving,
- The sheath, the most striking part of the
khanjar
madeup of lether, is worked with silver threads.
khanjars
are supported on belts of locally made webbing, sometimes interwoven with silver
thread or belts of leather covered by finely woven silver wire with handsome
silver buckles, and a knife with an ornate handle of silver thread is often
stuck into a simple leather pouch behind the sheath.
khanjars
are worn on formal occasions and at feasts and holidays, and almost all Omani
men boast one.
Once worn in self-defence, the
khanjar is
today both a fashion accessory and a prestige item much in demand.
Female
national dress
Omani women have very colourful costumes which vary from region to region.
The main components of a woman's outfit comprise a dress which is worn over
trousers (sirwal) and the headdress, called the lihaf or hijab. The Baluchi
dress is also common. It is worn by baluch women. There are numerous traditional
styles of Omani costume seen in Muscat. However, there are three main types
which show vibrant colours, embroidery and decorations. One style of costume is
rather flowing and resembles that worn by the women of the
Interior,
while another is decorated with distinctive silver bands. The embroidery on
these dresses can take around two months to complete. In the Dhofar
region(محافظة ظفار), the dress is known as the "Abu Dhail" which means 'one with
a tail'.
This dress is shorter at the front than at the rear and is made from
luxurious velvet or cotton, shot with gold and silver embroidery, beads and
sequins. It has a square neckline and is generally worn with a lightweight,
cotton or silk sh'ela "head dress" which may also be sewn with pearls, sequins
and sometimes small gold coins for special celebrations. Elaborate jewellery is
often worn with this dress, around the head, neck, wrists, ankles, fingers and
toes. Older ladies, originating from the desert and the mountains may do so.
Sport
| Sports of Oman |
|
Popular Sport |
Football, volleyball, hockey. |
| National Team Sports |
5 |
|
National Clubs |
48 |
|
Colors |
Red , White |
| |
The government aims to give young people a fully rounded education by
providing activities and experience in the sporting, cultural, intellectual,
social and scientific spheres, and to excel internationally in these areas and
for this reason, in October 2004, the government created a Ministry of Sports
Affairs to replace the General Organisation for Youth, Sports and Cultural
Affairs.
The 2009 Gulf Cup of Nations, the 19th edition, took place in Muscat, Oman,
from 4 January to 17 January 2009 and was won by Oman.
The International Olympic Committee awarded the former GOYSCA its prestigious
prize for sporting excellence in recognition of its contributions to youth and
sports and its efforts to promote the Olympic spirit and goals.
The Oman Olympic Committee played a major part in organizing the highly
successful 2003 Olympic Days, which were of great benefit to the sports
associations, clubs and young participants. The Football Association took part,
along with the Handball, Basketball, Hockey, Volleyball, Athletics, Swimming,
and Tennis Associations. In 2010 Muscat will host the
2010 Asian Beach Games for the first time.
Challenges
Oman's political challenges are primarily around succession plans. The
democratic institutions and processes are still in early development and have
not experienced real power. There is some risk of destabilization by radicals
backed by militant groups or other states.
Oman's Musandam peninsula is a strategic asset which may become contested in
future. Strong military ties with the United Kingdom and the
GCC countries helps maintain stability. The growing power of
Iran is not
considered a concern due to the friendly and historical ties between the two
countries.
The demographic challenges are, like in other
GCC countries, that a large proportion of the population are non-citizens.
The economic challenge is over-dependence on
oil. While this is a
benefit during oil price spikes, it is a risk during downturns.
Sudan
