History
Between 2200 BC and the 6th century AD, Yemen was part of the
Sabaean,
Awsanian,
Minaean,
Qatabanian,
Hadhramawtian,
Himyarite, and several other kingdoms, which controlled the lucrative
spice
trade. It was known to the ancient
Romans
as
Arabia Felix ("Happy Arabia") because of the riches its trade generated.
Augustus
attempted to annex it, but the expedition failed.
In the 3rd century and again in the early seventh century, many Sabaean and
Himyarite people migrated out of the land of Yemen to North Africa and the
northern part of the Arabian Peninsula following the destruction of the
Ma'rib Dam (sadd Ma'rib). In the 7th century, Islamic
caliphs began
to exert control over the area. After the caliphate broke up, the former North
Yemen came under the control of
imams of various dynasties, usually of the
Zaidi sect, who established a theocratic political structure that survived
until modern times.
Egyptian
Sunni caliphs occupied much of North Yemen throughout the eleventh century.
By the sixteenth century and again in the nineteenth century, north Yemen was
part of the
Ottoman Empire, and during several periods its imams exerted control over
south Yemen.
In 1839, the British occupied the port of
Aden and
established it as a colony in September of that year. They also set up a zone of
loose alliances (known as protectorates) around Aden to act as a protective
buffer.
North Yemen became independent of the
Ottoman Empire in 1918 and became a
republic in
1962.
In 1967, the British withdrew from Aden. After the British withdrawal, this
area became known as
South
Yemen. The two countries were formally
united as the Republic of Yemen on May 22, 1990. Despite the
1994 civil war in Yemen
Sada and Hadhramawt, Yemen is still considered a republic country.
Politics
Yemen ((Yaman)is a Presidential republic with a
bicameral legislature. Under the constitution, an elected president, an
elected 301-seat House of Representatives, and an appointed 111-member
Shura Council
share power. The president is head of state, and the prime minister is head of
government.
The constitution provides that the president be elected by popular vote from
at least two candidates endorsed by at least fifteen members of the Parliament.
The prime minister, in turn, is appointed by the president and must be approved
by two thirds of the Parliament. The presidential term of office is seven years,
and the parliamentary term of elected office is six years.
Suffrage is
universal for people age 18 and older.
President
Ali Abdullah Saleh became the first elected President in reunified Yemen in
1999 (though he had been President of unified Yemen since 1990 and President of
North Yemen since 1978). He was re-elected to office in September 2006. Although
he stated his reluctance to run again, popular demonstrations and editorials
offering support in major newspapers helped persuade him to run. Saleh's victory
was marked by an election that international observers judged to be generally
"free and fair".[5]
Parliamentary elections were held in April 2003, and the
General People's Congress (GPC) maintained an absolute majority. There was a
marked decrease from previous years in election-related violence.
The constitution calls for an independent judiciary. The former northern and
southern legal codes have been unified. The legal system includes separate
commercial courts and a Supreme Court based in
Sana'a. Since the country is an Islamic state, the Islamic Law (Sharia)
is the main source for laws. Indeed, many court cases are debated according to
the religious basis of law, and many judges are religious scholars as well as
legal authorities. Unlike Saudi Arabia and other Islamic states, however,
consumption of alcohol by non-Muslims is tolerated.
Geography
Yemen is in the
Middle
East, in the south of the
Arabian Peninsula, bordering the
Arabian
Sea,
Gulf of
Aden, and Red
Sea. It is west of
Oman and south of
Saudi
Arabia.
A number of
Red Sea islands, including the
Hanish Islands,
Kamaran and
Perim, as well as
Socotra in
the
Arabian Sea belong to Yemen. Many of the islands are volcanic; for example
Jabal al-Tair had a volcanic eruption in 2007 and before that in 1883.
At 527,970 km² (203,837 sq mi),
Yemen is the world's 49th-largest country (after
France). It is
comparable in size to
Thailand,
and somewhat larger than the U.S. state of
California.
Yemen is situated at
15°N
48°E
/ 15°N
48°E / 15; 48.
Until recently, Yemen's northern border was undefined; the
Arabian Desert prevented any human habitation there.
The country can be divided geographically into four main regions: the coastal
plains in the west, the western highlands, the eastern highlands, and the
Rub al Khali in the east.
The Tihamah
("hot lands") form a very arid and flat coastal plain. Despite the aridity, the
presence of many
lagoons makes this region very marshy and a suitable breeding ground for
malarial
mosquitoes.
There are extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes. The evaporation in the Tihama is
so great that streams from the highlands never reach the sea, but they do
contribute to extensive
groundwater reserves. Today, these are heavily exploited for agricultural
use. Near the village of
Madar
about 48 km North of Sanaa dinosaur footprints were found, indicating that the
area was once a mud flat.
The Tihamah
ends abruptly at the escarpment of the western highlands. This area, now heavily
terraced to meet the demand for food, receives the highest rainfall in
Arabia, rapidly increasing from 100 mm
(4 inches) per year
to about 760 mm (30 inches) in
Ta'izz and over
1,000 mm (40 inches) in
Ibb.
Agriculture here is very diverse, with such crops as
sorghum
dominating. Cotton
and many fruit
trees are also grown, with
mangoes being the
most valuable. Temperatures are hot in the day but fall dramatically at night.
There are perennial streams in the highlands but these never reach the sea
because of high evaporation in the Tihama.
The central highlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 metres
(6,560 feet) in elevation. This area is drier than the western highlands because
of rain-shadow influences, but still receives sufficient rain in wet years for
extensive cropping. Diurnal temperature ranges are among the highest in the
world: ranges from 30 °C (86 °F) in the day to 0 °C (32 °F) at night are normal.[citation
needed] Water storage allows for
irrigation
and the growing of
wheat and
barley. Sana'a is located in this region. The highest point in Yemen is
Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb, at 3,666 meters (12,028 ft).
The
Rub al Khali in the east is much lower, generally below 1,000 metres, and
receives almost no rain. It is populated only by Bedouin herders of
camels.
Economy
Sana'a,
the capital of the Republic of Yemen, is an ancient walled city of
6,500 houses, over 100 mosques, and a wealth of traditional
architectural styles
Assab'en Street in
Sana'a,
Yemen. Memorial of the revolution of September 26, 1962
Remittances from Yemenis working abroad and
foreign aid paid for perennial trade deficits. Reports average annual growth
in the range of 3–4% from 2000 through 2007. Its economic fortunes depend mostly
on declining oil resources, providing around 90% of the country's exports[9].
The
World Bank predicts that Yemen's oil and gas revenues will plummet during
2009 and 2010, and fall to zero by 2017 as supplies run out. In 2008 the UK's
Royal Institute for International Affairs warned that economic collapse in Yemen
could threaten stability throughout the region from northeast Africa to Saudi
Arabia and, citing armed conflicts with Islamists and tribal insurgents,
described Yemen's democracy as "fragile". These concerns have prompted the
desires of leaders and diplomats from the West and elsewhere to preserve Yemen's
economic stability.[9]
As such, the country is trying to diversify its earnings. In 2006 Yemen began
an economic reform program designed to bolster non-oil sectors of the economy
and foreign investment. As a result of the program, international donors pledged
about $5 billion for development projects. In addition, Yemen has made some
progress on reforms over the last year that will likely encourage foreign
investment. Oil revenues increased in 2007, probably a result of higher prices.
Substantial Yemeni communities exist in many countries of the world,
including Yemen's immediate neighbors on the Arabian Peninsula,
Indonesia,
Pakistan,
the
Horn of Africa, the
United Kingdom,
Israel, and the United States, especially in the area around
Detroit, Michigan, and in
Lackawanna, New York. Beginning in the mid-1950s, the
Soviet
Union and China
provided large-scale assistance. For example, the Chinese are involved with the
expansion of the International Airport in Sanaa.
In the south, pre-independence economic activity was overwhelmingly
concentrated in the port city of Aden. The seaborne transit trade, which the
port relied upon, collapsed with the closure of the
Suez Canal
and Britain's withdrawal from Aden in 1967.
Since unification, the government has worked to integrate two relatively
disparate economic systems. However, severe shocks, including the return in 1990
of approximately 850,000 Yemenis from the Persian Gulf states, a subsequent
major reduction of aid flows, and internal political disputes culminating in the
1994 civil war hampered economic growth. As the fastest growing democracy in the
Middle East, Yemen is attempting to climb into the middle human development
region through ongoing political and economic reform.
Since the conclusion of the war, the government entered into agreement with
the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) to implement a structural adjustment
program. Phase one of the IMF program included major financial and monetary
reforms, including floating the currency, reducing the budget deficit, and
cutting subsidies. Phase two will address structural issues such as civil
service reform.
In early 1995, the government of Yemen launched an economic, financial and
administrative reform program (EFARP) with the support of the World Bank and the
IMF, as well international donors. The First Five-Year Plan (FFYP) for the years
1996 to 2000 was introduced in 1996. The World Bank has focused on public sector
management, including civil service reform, budget reform and privatization. In
addition, attracting diversified private investment, water management and
poverty-oriented social sector improvements has been made a priority for the
implementation of the programs in Yemen. These programs had a positive impact on
Yemen’s economy and led to the reduction of the budget deficit to less than 3%
of GDP during the period from 1995 to 1999 and the correction of macro-financial
imbalances.[10]0]
In 1997, IMF and the Yemeni government began medium-term economic reform
programs under the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) and Extended
Fund Facility (EFF). This program was aimed at reducing dependence on the oil
sector and establishing a market environment for real non-oil GDP growth and
investment in the non-oil sector. Increasing the growth rate in the non-oil
sector was one of the government's most important objectives. Programs also
focused on reducing unemployment, strengthening the social safety net and
increasing financial stability. To achieve these reforms, the government and IMF
implemented containment of government wages, improvements in revenue collection
with the introduction of reforms in tax administration, and a sharp reduction in
subsidies bills through increased prices on subsidized goods. As a result, the
fiscal cash deficit was reduced from 16% of GDP to 0.9% from 1994 to 1997. This
was supported by aid from oil-exporting countries despite the wide-ranging
fluctuations in world oil prices. The real growth rate in the non-oil sector
rose by 5.6% from 1995 to 1997.[11]
The
World Bank is active in Yemen, with 22 active projects in 2004, including
projects to improve governance in the public sector, water and education. In
1996 and 1997, Yemen lowered its debt burden through
Paris Club
agreements and restructuring U.S. foreign debt. In 2003, government reserves
reached $50 billion. The government has recently done a number of regulatory
reforms and Yemen now ranks 98th on the World Bank's "Ease of Doing Business"
index.[12]
Foreign
relations
The geography and ruling Imams of
North
Yemen, kept the country isolated from foreign influence before 1962. The
country's relations with Saudi Arabia were defined by the
| Taif Agreement of 1934, which delineated the northernmost part of the
border between the two kingdoms and set the framework for commercial and other
intercourse. The Taif Agreement has been renewed periodically in 20-year
increments, and its validity was reaffirmed in 1995. Relations with the British
colonial authorities in
Aden and the south were usually tense.
The Soviet and Chinese Aid Missions established in 1958 and 1959 were the
first important non-Muslim presence in North Yemen. Following the September 1962
revolution, the
Yemen Arab Republic became closely allied with and heavily dependent upon
Egypt. Saudi Arabia aided the royalists in their attempt to defeat the
Republicans and did not recognize the Yemen Arab Republic until 1970. At the
same time, Saudi Arabia maintained direct contact with Yemeni tribes, which
sometimes strained its official relations with the Yemeni Government. Hundreds
of thousands of Yemenis found employment in Saudi Arabia during the late 1970s
and 1980s.
In February 1989, North Yemen joined
Iraq,
Jordan, and
Egypt in forming
the
Arab Cooperation Council (ACC), an organization created partly in response
to the founding of the
Gulf Cooperation Council, and intended to foster closer economic cooperation
and integration among its members. After unification, the Republic of Yemen was
accepted as a member of the ACC in place of its YAR predecessor. In the wake of
the Persian Gulf crisis, the ACC has remained inactive. Yemen is not a member of
the Gulf Cooperation Council.
British authorities left southern Yemen in November 1967 in the wake of an
intense rebellion. The The
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, the successor to British colonial
rule, had diplomatic relations with many nations, but its major links were with
the Soviet Union and other
Marxist
countries. Relations between it and the conservative Arab states of the Arabian
Peninsula were strained. There were military clashes with Saudi Arabia in 1969
and 1973, and the PDRY provided active support for the
Dhofar rebellion against the Sultanate of Oman. The PDRY was the only Arab
state to vote against admitting new Arab states from the Gulf area to the United
Nations and the Arab League. The PDRY provided sanctuary and material support to
various insurgent groups around the Middle East.
Yemen is a member of the
United Nations, the
Arab
League, and the
Organization of the Islamic Conference, and also participates in the
nonaligned movement. The Republic of Yemen accepted responsibility for all
treaties and debts of its predecessors, the YAR and the PDRY. Yemen has acceded
to the nuclear nonproliferation treaty. The Persian Gulf crisis dramatically
affected Yemen's foreign relations. As a member of the
United Nations Security Council (UNSC) for 1990 and 1991, Yemen abstained on
a number of UNSC resolutions concerning Iraq and Kuwait and voted against the
"use of force resolution." Western and Gulf Arab states reacted by curtailing or
canceling aid programs and diplomatic contacts. At least 850,000 Yemenis
returned from Saudi Arabia and the Gulf.
Subsequent to the liberation of
Kuwait, Yemen
continued to maintain high-level contacts with Iraq. This hampered its efforts
to rejoin the Arab mainstream and to mend fences with its immediate neighbors.
In 1993, Yemen launched an unsuccessful diplomatic offensive to restore
relations with its Gulf neighbors. Some of its aggrieved neighbors actively
aided the south during the 1994 civil war. Since the end of that conflict,
tangible progress has been made on the diplomatic front in restoring normal
relations with Yemen's neighbors. The Omani-Yemeni border has been officially
demarcated. In the summer of 2000, Yemen and Saudi Arabia signed an
International Border Treaty settling a 50 year old dispute over the location of
the border between the two countries. Yemen settled its dispute with
Eritr over
the
Hanish Islands in 1998. 1998.
After the departure from the Gulf Arab states, as many as 15,000 Yemenis
migrated to the U.S. Many Yemenis can be found in the south of
Dearborn, Michigan. In the early 90s, Yemenis went in search of
manufacturing jobs. They continue to work in the U.S. and routinely send money
back to their families.
Kidnapping of foreign tourists by tribes was an ongoing problem from the
1990s[13]
until at least 2009[14].
In many instances, the kidnappers attempted to use hostage taking to gain
leverage in negotiations with the government. One victim of kidnapping was
former German Secretary of State
Jürgen Chrobog, a man who himself had conducted negotiations with kidnappers
while in office.[15]
In June 2009, a group of nine foreign tourists were kidnapped near the city of
Saada. Seven were massacred and two children survived.[16]
Yemen has historically enjoyed good relations with
Somalia, its
neighbour to the south and fellow Arab League member. Ethnic
Somalis for the most part blend in well with Yemeni society, as they share
centuries of close
Islamic, migratory and
Arab origin. Non-ethnic Somalis such as the
Bantus
face the greatest hardship, as they are shunned by both Yemeni and Somali
society. The World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee
for Refugees and Immigrants, estimates that 110,600 Somali refugees and asylum
seekers lived in Yemen in 2007.[17]
Yemen also maintains good relations with
Djibouti,
its other Somali neighbour to the west across the
Red Sea. With
a rapidly expanding economy, a stable government, huge investments from fellow
Gulf Arab nations, and a strategic maritime location in the Red Sea and the
Gulf of
Aden, Djibouti stands as an important ally. While Djibouti is largely
inhabited by Somalis, it is separate from the
Somali Republic and holds its own seat in the United Nations and the
League of Arab States. On February 22, 2008, it was revealed that a company
owned by
Tarek bin laden was planning to build a bridge across the
Bab el Mandeb, linking Yemen with Djibouti.
Religion
Islam makes up
99 percent of the population in Yemen, including Shaf'i/salafi
Sunni and Zaydi
Shia, but there are small numbers of Yemenis who are
Jewish,
Christian, and
Hindu.[18]
Religion in Yemen consists primarily of two principal Islamic religious
groups: 55% of the population are Sunni and 45% are Shi'a.[20]
Demographics
The Population of Yemen was about 21 million according to July 2005
estimates, with 46% of the population being under 15 years old and 2,7% above 65
years.
Yemen has one of the world's highest birth rates; the average Yemeni woman
bears seven children. Although this is similar to the rate in
Somalia to
the south, it is roughly twice as high as that of Saudi Arabia and nearly three
times as high as those in the more modernized Gulf Arab states.
Yemenis are mainly of Arab origin.[1]
Arabic is the official language, although
English is increasingly understood by citizens in major cities. In the
Mahra area (the extreme east) and the island
Soqotra, several ancient south-Arabic Semitic languages are spoken.[21][22]
When the former states of north and south Yemen were established, most resident
minority groups departed.[23]
Yemenite Jews once formed a sizable Jewish minority in Yemen with a distinct
culture. They also occupied key industries including silversmiths and their
influence on Yemeni culture is still discussed within the souks. However, most
of them emigrated to
Israel in the
mid 20th century, following the
Jewish exodus from Arab lands and
Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen). In the early 20th century, they had numbered
about 50,000; they currently number only a few hundred individuals and reside
largely in Sana'a. The original Jews village is now left abandoned which is
popularly known as "Bait-baws".
Arab traders have long operated in
Southeast Asia, trading in spices, timber and textiles. Most of the
prominent
Indonesians,
Malaysians and
Singaporeans of
Arab descent have their origins in southern Yemen in the
Hadramawt coastal region.[24]
As many as 10 million
Indonesians are of Hadrami descent and today there are almost 10,000
Hadramis in
Singapore.[25]
Fifty years ago, there were Hadramis who emigrated from Yemen to Somalia but
this emigration has stopped now due to political and civil unrest.
A non-operational old church in
Aden.
Religion in Yemen consists primarily of two principal Islamic religious
groups. 90% of the population are Sunni and about 8-9% are Shi'a.[20]
Sunnis are primarily
Shafi'i, but also include significant groups of
Malikis,
Salafis and
Hanbalis. About 40% of Yemenis are Shafi'i Sunnis, 30-35% are Salafi Sunnis,
5% are Maliki Sunnis.
Shi'is are primarily
Zaidis, and also have significant minorities of Twelver Shias[26]
and Musta'ali Western Isma'ili Shias. About 6-8% of Yemenis are Zaidi Shias,
1-2% are Jaffaris Shias and 1-2% are Musta'ali Ismaili Shias.
The Sunnis are predominantly in the south and southeast. The Zaidis are
predominantly in the north and northwest whilst the Jafaris and Ismailis are in
the main centers such as Sana'a and Ma'rib. There are mixed communities in the
larger cities. Less than 1% of Yemenis are non-Muslim, adhering to Hinduism,
Christianity and Judaism.[27]
According to the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Yemen hosted a
population of
refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 124,600 in 2007.
Refugees and asylum seekers living in Yemen were predominately from
Somalia
(110,600), Iraq
(11,000) and
Ethiopia (2,000).[17]
The
Yemeni diaspora is largely concentrated in the
United Kingdom, where between
70,000 and 80,000 Yemenis reside, also just over
15,000 - 20,000 Yemenis reside in the
United States and 2,000 live in
France.[28]
Languages
While the national language is Arabic (Yemeni
Arabic is spoken in several regional dialects), Yemen is one of the main
homelands of the
South
Semitic family of languages, which includes the non-Arabic language of the
ancient
Sabaean Kingdom. Its modern Yemeni descendants are closely related to the
modern Semitic
languages of
Eritrea and
Ethiopia. However, only a small remnant of those languages exists in modern
Yemen, notably on the island of
Socotra and
in the back hills of the
Hadhramaut
coastal region. Modern
South
Arabian languages spoken in Yemen include
Mehri, with 70,643 speakers,
Soqotri, with an estimated 43,000 speakers in the
Socotra
archipelago (2004 census) and 67,000 worldwide,
Bathari (with an estimated total of only 200 speakers), and
Hobyót language.
Foreign language in public schools is taught from grade seven on, though the
quality of public school instruction is low. Private schools using a British or
American system teach English and produce proficient speakers, but Arabic is the
dominant language of communication. The number of English speakers in Yemen is
small compared to other Arab countries such as Egypt, Lebanon, the UAE and Saudi
Arabia. Private schools have also started to teach French alongside Arabic and
English.
Culture
Yemen is a culturally rich country with influence from many civilizations,
such as the early civilization of
Sheba.
Qat
Qat, also known
as Khat (Catha edulis) is a large, slow growing, evergreen shrub,
reaching a height of between 1 and 6 meters, in equatorial regions it may reach
a height of 10 meters.[33]
This plant is widely cultivated in Yemen and is generally used for chewing. When
Khat juice is swallowed, its leaf juice has a caffeine-like effect. It is deeply
rooted in Yemeni culture, which it has exported to its neighbours across the
Gulf of
Aden, Somalia,
Djibouti
and, to a lesser degree,
Eritrea
(where it is mainly consumed by ethnic Arabs of Yemeni and
Rashaida origins). Khat is chewed by men and women.
Cinema
The Yemeni film industry is in its early stages, there being only two Yemeni
films as of 2008. Released in 2005,
A New Day in Old Sana'a deals with a young man struggling between
whether to go ahead with a traditional marriage or go with the woman he loves.
In August 2008, Yemen’s Interior Minister Mutahar al-Masri supported the
launch of a new feature film to educate the public about the consequences of
Islamist extremism. "The Losing Bet" was produced by Fadl al-Olfi. The plot
follows two Yemeni jihadis, who return from years living abroad. They are sent
home by an Al Qaeda mastermind to recruit new members and carry out deadly
operations in Yemen.[34]
World
heritage sitess
Among Yemen’s natural and cultural attractions are four
World Heritage sites.
The Old Walled City of
Shibam in Wadi
Hadhramaut, inscribed by
UNESCO in 1982,
two years after Yemen joined the world heritage organisation, is nicknamed
"Manhattan of the Desert", because of its "skyscrapers". Surrounded by a
fortified wall, the 16th Century City is one of the oldest and examples of urban
planning based on the principle of vertical construction.
The ancient Old City of Sana’a at an altitude of more than 7,000 feet has
been inhabited for over two and a half millennia and was inscribed in 1986.
Sana’a became a major Islamic centre in the 7th Century and the 103 mosques, 14
hammams (traditional bath houses) and more than 6,000 houses that survive all
date from before the 11th Century.
Close to the Red Sea Coast, the Historic Town of
Zabid, inscribed in 1993, was Yemen’s capital from the 13th to 15th Century,
and is an archaeological and historical site. It played an important role for
many centuries, because of its university, which was a centre of learning for
the whole Arab and Islamic world. Algebra is said to have been invented there in
the early 9th Century by the little known scholar
al-Jaladi.
The latest addition to Yemen’s list of World Heritage Sites is the
Socotra
Archipelago. Mentioned by
Marco Polo
in the 13th Century, this remote and isolated Archipelago consists of four
islands and two rocky islets near the Gulf of Aden. The site has rich
biodiversity. 37% of Socotra’s 825 plants, 90% of its reptiles and 95% of its
snails are unique and do not occur anywhere else in the world. It is home to 192
bird species, 253 species of coral, 730 species of costal fish and 300 species
of crab and lobster, as well as a range of Aloes and the Dragon’s Blood Tree (Dracaena
cinnabari). The cultural heritage of Socotra includes the unique
Soqotri language.
Sudan
